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Sibika ubufakazi bokuphakama okusebenzayo phansi kolwandle kanye nokukhishwa kwegesi emakhilomitha ambalwa ukusuka echwebeni laseNaples (e-Italy). Ama-Pockmark, izindunduma kanye nemigodi kuyizimpawu zaphansi kolwandle. Lezi zakhiwo zimelela iziqongo zezakhiwo ezingajulile zokwakheka komhlaba, okuhlanganisa ama-pagoda, amaphutha kanye nokugoba okuthinta phansi kolwandle namuhla. Ziqophe ukukhuphuka, ukucindezela kanye nokukhululwa kwe-helium kanye ne-carbon dioxide ekuphenduleni kwe-decarbonization kwe-mantle melts kanye namadwala okwakheka komhlaba. Lawa magesi cishe afana nalawo ondla izinhlelo zokushisa komhlaba zase-Ischia, Campi Flegre kanye ne-Soma-Vesuvius, okuphakamisa umthombo wokushisa komhlaba oxutshwe noketshezi lokwakheka komhlaba ngaphansi kweGulf of Naples. Ukwanda kanye nokuqhuma komhlaba ongaphansi kolwandle okubangelwa inqubo yokuphakamisa igesi kanye nokucindezela komhlaba kudinga ukucindezela okukhulu kwe-2-3 MPa. Ukuphakama komhlaba, amaphutha, kanye nokukhishwa kwegesi kuyizibonakaliso zokuguquka okungeyona intaba-mlilo okungase kubangele ukuqhuma komhlaba wolwandle kanye/noma ukuqhuma kwamanzi okwakheka komhlaba.
Ukukhishwa kwamanzi ashisayo (amanzi ashisayo kanye negesi) olwandle olujulile kuyisici esivamile semiphetho ephakathi kolwandle kanye nemingcele yepuleti elihlanganayo (kufaka phakathi izingxenye ezingaphansi kwamanzi ze-arcs zesiqhingi), kanti ukukhishwa okubandayo kwama-hydrate egesi (ama-chlatrates) kuvame ukuba uphawu lwamashalofu ezwekazi kanye nemingcele engasebenzi1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Ukuvela kokukhishwa kwamanzi ashisayo olwandle ezindaweni ezisogwini kusho imithombo yokushisa (ama-magma reservoirs) ngaphakathi koqweqwe lwezwekazi kanye/noma i-mantle. Lokhu kukhishwa kungase kwandulele ukukhuphuka kwe-magma ngezingqimba eziphezulu zoqweqwe loMhlaba futhi kuphethe ngokuqhuma nokufakwa kwezintaba-mlilo6. Ngakho-ke, ukuhlonza (a) izimo ezihlobene nokuguqulwa okusebenzayo kolwandle kanye (b) nokukhishwa kwegesi eduze kwezindawo ezinabantu abaningi ezisogwini njengesifunda sentaba-mlilo saseNaples e-Italy (abantu abacishe babe yisigidi) kubalulekile ekuhloleni izintaba-mlilo ezingaba khona. Ukuqhuma okungajulile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngenkathi izici zesimo ezihlobene nokukhishwa kwegesi eshisayo noma i-hydrate olwandle olujulile zaziwa kahle ngenxa yezakhiwo zazo ze-geological kanye ne-biological, okuhlukile yizici zesimo ezihlobene namanzi angajulile, Ngaphandle kwalezo ezenzeka eLake 12, kunezirekhodi ezimbalwa kakhulu. Lapha, sethula idatha entsha ye-bathymetric, i-seismic, ikholomu yamanzi, kanye ne-geochemical yesifunda esingaphansi kwamanzi, ngokwesimo kanye nesakhiwo esiyinkimbinkimbi esithinteke ukukhishwa kwegesi eGulf of Naples (eNingizimu ye-Italy), cishe amakhilomitha ama-5 ukusuka echwebeni laseNaples. Le datha yaqoqwa ngesikhathi sohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 (Agasti 2014) ngesikebhe i-R/V Urania. Sichaza futhi sichaza izakhiwo zaphansi kolwandle kanye nezangaphansi komhlaba lapho kwenzeka khona ukukhishwa kwegesi, siphenye imithombo yoketshezi olukhipha umoya, sihlonze futhi sichaze izindlela ezilawula ukukhuphuka kwegesi kanye nokuguquguquka okuhambisanayo, futhi sixoxe ngemiphumela ye-volcanology.
IGulf of Naples yakha umngcele osentshonalanga wePlio-Quaternary, ukwehla kwe-tectonic kwe-NW-SE okude kweCampania13,14,15. I-EW ye-Ischia (cishe ngo-150-1302 AD), i-Campi Flegre crater (cishe ngo-300-1538) kanye ne-Soma-Vesuvius (kusukela ku-<360-1944) Lolu hlelo luvimba i-bay enyakatho ye-AD)15, kuyilapho eningizimu inqamula i-Sorrento Peninsula (Isithombe 1a). IGulf of Naples ithintwa yi-NE-SW ekhona kanye namaphutha amakhulu esibili e-NW-SE (Isithombe 1)14,15. I-Ischia, i-Campi Flegrei kanye ne-Somma-Vesuvius zibonakala ngokubonakaliswa kwe-hydrothermal, ukuguqulwa komhlaba, kanye nokuzamazama komhlaba okungajulile16,17,18 (isb., isenzakalo esishubile eCampi Flegrei ngo-1982-1984, ngokuphakama okungu-1.8 m kanye nokuzamazama komhlaba okuyizinkulungwane). Izifundo zakamuva19,20 ziphakamisa ukuthi kukhona kungaba ukuxhumana phakathi kokuguquguquka kwe-Soma-Vesuvius kanye nokwe-Campi Flegre, okungenzeka kuhlotshaniswa namachibi 'ajulile' e-single magma. Umsebenzi wezintaba-mlilo kanye nokunyakaza kwezinga lolwandle kuma-36 ka okugcina e-Campi Flegrei kanye nama-18 ka e-Somma Vesuvius alawula uhlelo lwe-sedimentary lwe-Gulf of Naples. Izinga eliphansi lolwandle ku-last glacial maximum (18 ka) kwaholela ekubuyeleni emuva kohlelo lwe-sedimentary olungajulile olusogwini, olwagcwaliswa kamuva yizigameko ezidlulayo ngesikhathi se-Late Pleistocene-Holocene. Ukukhishwa kwegesi ngaphansi kwamanzi kutholakale esiqhingini sase-Ischia kanye nasogwini lwase-Campi Flegre kanye naseNtabeni i-Soma-Vesuvius (Isithombe 1b).
(a) Ukuhlelwa kwesimo sendawo kanye nokwakheka kweshelufu lezwekazi kanye neGulf of Naples 15, 23, 24, 48. Amachashazi ayizikhungo ezinkulu zokuqhuma kwemikhumbi-ngwenya; imigqa ebomvu imelela amaphutha amakhulu. (b) I-Bathymetry yeBay of Naples enezindawo zokungenisa uketshezi ezitholakele (amachashazi) kanye nemikhondo yemigqa yokuzamazama komhlaba (imigqa emnyama). Imigqa ephuzi iyimizila yemigqa yokuzamazama komhlaba i-L1 ne-L2 ebikwe kuMfanekiso 6. Imingcele yezakhiwo ezifana ne-Banco della Montagna (BdM) iphawulwe ngemigqa eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka edwetshwe ku-(a,b). Izikwele eziphuzi ziphawula izindawo zamaphrofayili ekholomu yamanzi e-acoustic, kanti ozimele be-CTD-EMBlank, CTD-EM50 kanye ne-ROV babikwe kuMfanekiso 5. Indilinga ephuzi iphawula indawo yokukhishwa kwegesi yesampula, futhi ukwakheka kwayo kuboniswe kuThebula S1. I-Golden Software (http://www.goldensoftware.com/products/surfer) isebenzisa ihluzo ezikhiqizwe yi-Surfer® 13.
Ngokusekelwe kudatha etholakale ngesikhathi sohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 (Agasti 2014) (bheka i-Methods), i-Digital Terrain Model (DTM) entsha ye-Gulf of Naples ene-resolution engu-1 m yakhiwe. I-DTM ikhombisa ukuthi phansi kolwandle eningizimu ye-Port of Naples kubonakala ngobuso obubheke eningizimu (umthambeka ≤3°) obuphazanyiswe yisakhiwo esifana ne-dome esingu-5.0 × 5.3 km, esaziwa endaweni ngokuthi i-Banco della Montagna (BdM). Isithombe. 1a,b).I-BdM ikhula ekujuleni okungamamitha ayi-100 kuya kwangu-170, amamitha ayi-15 kuya kwangu-20 ngaphezu kolwandle oluzungezile. Idome le-BdM libonise isimo esifana nendunduma ngenxa yezindunduma ezingama-280 ezingaphansi kwesiyingi kuya kweziyindilinga (Isithombe 2a), amakhoni angu-665, kanye nemigodi engama-30 (Izithombe 3 no-4). Indunduma inokuphakama okuphezulu kanye nokujikeleza okungamamitha angama-22 kanye no-1,800 ngokulandelana. Ukujikeleza [C = 4π(indawo/ipherimitha2)] kwezindunduma kwehle ngokuphakama komjikelezo (Isithombe 2b). Izilinganiso ze-axial zezindunduma zaziphakathi kuka-1 no-6.5, nezindunduma ezinesilinganiso se-axial >2 ezibonisa ukushaya okuthandwayo kwe-N45°E + 15° kanye nokushaya kwesibili okuhlakazekile, okuhlakazekile kakhulu kwe-N105°E kuya ku-N145°E (Isithombe 2c). Amakhoni angawodwa noma aqondile akhona endizeni ye-BdM naphezu kwendunduma (Isithombe 3a, b). Amalungiselelo aqondile alandela ukuhlelwa kwamagquma lapho akhona khona. Ama-pockmark avame ukutholakala phansi kolwandle oluyisicaba (Isithombe 3c) futhi ngezinye izikhathi emagqumeni. Ubuningi bendawo bamakhoni nama-pockmark bubonisa ukuthi ukulungelelaniswa kwe-NE-SW okuyinhloko kunciphisa imingcele yasenyakatho-mpumalanga naseningizimu-ntshonalanga yedome ye-BdM (Isithombe 4a, b); umzila we-NW-SE onganwetshwanga kakhulu utholakala esifundeni esiphakathi se-BdM.
(a) Imodeli yendawo yedijithali (usayizi weseli ongu-1 m) wedome yeBanco della Montagna (BdM).(b) Umjikelezo kanye nokuzungeza kwezindunduma ze-BdM.(c) Isilinganiso se-Axial kanye ne-angle (orientation) ye-axis enkulu ye-ellipse efaneleka kakhulu ezungeze indunduma. Iphutha elijwayelekile lemodeli ye-Digital Terrain lingu-0.004 m; amaphutha ajwayelekile omjikelezo kanye nokuzungeza angu-4.83 m kanye no-0.01, ngokulandelana, kanti amaphutha ajwayelekile esilinganiso se-axial kanye ne-angle angu-0.04 kanye no-3.34°, ngokulandelana.
Imininingwane yamakhoni atholakele, ama-crater, izindunduma kanye nemigodi esifundeni se-BdM esithathwe ku-DTM kuMfanekiso 2.
(a) Amakhoni okuqondanisa phansi kolwandle oluyisicaba; (b) amakhoni kanye nama-crater ezindundumeni ezincane zase-NW-SE; (c) ama-pockmarks endaweni ecwiliswe kancane.
(a) Ukusatshalaliswa kwendawo yemigodi etholakele, imigodi, kanye nokukhishwa kwegesi esebenzayo. (b) Ubuningi bendawo yemigodi nemigodi kubikwe ku-(a) (inombolo/0.2 km2).
Sithole ukukhishwa kwegesi okungu-37 esifundeni se-BdM okuvela ezithombeni ze-ROV water column echo sounder kanye nokubonwa okuqondile kwephansi lolwandle okutholakale ngesikhathi sohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 ngo-Agasti 2014 (Izithombe 4 no-5). Ukungafani kwe-acoustic kwalokhu kukhishwa kwegesi kubonisa izimo ezinde eziqondile ezikhuphuka phansi kolwandle, ezisukela phezulu phakathi kwamamitha angu-12 nangu-70 (Isithombe 5a). Kwezinye izindawo, ukungafani kwe-acoustic kwakha "isitimela" esicishe siqhubeke. Ama-bubble plume abonwe ayahlukahluka kakhulu: kusukela ekugelezeni kwe-bubble okuqhubekayo, okuxinene kuya ezimweni ezihlala isikhathi esifushane (I-Supplementary Movie 1). Ukuhlolwa kwe-ROV kuvumela ukuqinisekiswa okubonakalayo kokuvela kwemigodi yamanzi olwandle futhi kugqamisa ama-pockmark amancane phansi kolwandle, ngezinye izikhathi azungezwe yizinsalela ezibomvu kuya kowolintshi (Isithombe 5b). Kwezinye izimo, iziteshi ze-ROV zivuselela ukukhishwa kwegesi. I-vertical vent morphology ikhombisa ukuvulwa okuyisiyingi phezulu okungenawo ama-flare kukholamu yamanzi. I-pH kukholamu yamanzi ngaphezu nje kwendawo yokukhipha ibonise ukwehla okukhulu, okubonisa izimo ze-acidic endaweni (Isithombe 5c, d). Ikakhulukazi, i-pH ngaphezu kokukhishwa kwegesi ye-BdM ekujuleni okungama-75 m yehle kusuka ku-8.4 (ekujuleni okungama-70 m) yaya ku-7.8 (ekujuleni okungama-75 m) (Isithombe 5c), kanti ezinye izindawo eGulf of Naples zazinamanani e-pH aphakathi kuka-0 no-160 m phakathi kwesikhawu sokujula esiphakathi kuka-8.3 ​​no-8.5 (Isithombe 5d). Izinguquko ezibalulekile ekushiseni kwamanzi olwandle kanye nosawoti zazingekho ezindaweni ezimbili ngaphakathi nangaphandle kwendawo ye-BdM yeGulf of Naples. Ekujuleni okungama-70 m, izinga lokushisa lingu-15 °C kanti usawoti ungama-38 PSU (Isithombe 5c,d). Izilinganiso ze-pH, izinga lokushisa, kanye nosawoti zikhombisile: a) ukubamba iqhaza koketshezi olune-asidi oluhambisana nenqubo yokukhipha igesi ye-BdM kanye b) ukungabikho noma ukukhishwa kancane kakhulu koketshezi olushisayo kanye nosawoti.
(a) Ifasitela lokuthola iphrofayili yekholomu yamanzi e-acoustic (i-echometer Simrad EK60). Ibhendi eluhlaza eqondile ehambisana nokugqama kwegesi okutholwe ekukhishweni koketshezi lwe-EM50 (cishe ngamamitha angu-75 ngaphansi kolwandle) etholakala esifundeni se-BdM; izimpawu ze-multiplex ezingezansi naphansi kolwandle nazo ziyaboniswa (b) ziqoqwe ngemoto elawulwa kude esifundeni se-BdM Isithombe esisodwa sibonisa i-crater encane (indilinga emnyama) ezungezwe udoti obomvu kuya kowolintshi.(c,d) Idatha ye-CTD ye-probe ye-multiparameter icutshungulwa kusetshenziswa isofthiwe ye-SBED-Win32 (i-Seasave, inguqulo 7.23.2). Amaphethini wamapharamitha akhethiwe (usawoti, izinga lokushisa, i-pH kanye nomoya-mpilo) wekholomu yamanzi ngaphezu kokukhishwa koketshezi kwe-EM50 (iphaneli c) nangaphandle kwephaneli yendawo yokukhishwa kwe-Bdm (d).
Siqoqe amasampula amathathu egesi endaweni yokucwaninga phakathi kuka-Agasti 22 no-28, 2014. Lawa masampula abonise ukwakheka okufanayo, okubuswa yi-CO2 (934-945 mmol/mol), kulandelwe ukugxila okufanele kwe-N2 (37-43 mmol/mol), i-CH4 (16-24 mmol/mol) kanye ne-H2S (0.10 mmol/mol) -0.44 mmol/mol), kuyilapho i-H2 kanye ne-He zazincane kakhulu (<0.052 kanye <0.016 mmol/mol, ngokulandelana) (Isithombe 1b; Ithebula S1, I-Supplementary Movie 2). Ukugxila okuphezulu kwe-O2 kanye ne-Ar nakho kwalinganiswa (kufika ku-3.2 kanye no-0.18 mmol/mol, ngokulandelana). Isamba sama-hydrocarbon akhanyayo sisukela ku-0.24 kuya ku-0.30 mmol/mol futhi sakhiwe ama-alkanes e-C2-C4, ama-aromatics (ikakhulukazi i-benzene), i-propene kanye nama-compounds aqukethe i-sulfur (i-thiophene). Inani le-40Ar/36Ar lihambisana umoya (295.5), yize isampula ye-EM35 (i-BdM dome) inenani elingu-304, ekhombisa ukweqisa okuncane kwe-40Ar. Isilinganiso se-δ15N sasiphezulu kunesomoya (kufika ku-+1.98% uma kuqhathaniswa noMoya), kuyilapho amanani e-δ13C-CO2 ​​asukela ku--0.93 kuya ku-0.44% uma kuqhathaniswa namanani e-V-PDB.R/Ra ​​(ngemuva kokulungisa ukungcoliswa komoya kusetshenziswa isilinganiso se-4He/20Ne) ayephakathi kuka-1.66 no-1.94, okubonisa ukuthi kukhona ingxenye enkulu ye-mantle He. Ngokuhlanganisa i-isotope ye-helium ne-CO2 kanye ne-isotope yayo ezinzile engu-22, umthombo wokukhishwa kwegesi ku-BdM ungacaciswa kabanzi. Kumephu ye-CO2 ye-CO2/3He uma kuqhathaniswa ne-δ13C (Isithombe 6), ukwakheka kwegesi ye-BdM kuqhathaniswa nokwe-Ischia, i-Campi Flegrei kanye ne-Somma-Vesuvius fumaroles.Isithombe 6 sibika nemigqa yokuxubana kwethiyori phakathi kwemithombo emithathu ehlukene yekhabhoni. okungase kuhileleke ekukhiqizweni kwegesi ye-BdM: ukuncibilika okutholakala ku-mantle okuncibilikisiwe, izihlabathi ezicebile ngezinto eziphilayo, kanye nama-carbonate. Amasampula e-BdM awela emgqeni wokuxuba oboniswa yizintaba-mlilo ezintathu zaseCampania, okungukuthi, ukuxubana phakathi kwamagesi e-mantle (okucatshangwa ukuthi anothe kancane ku-carbon dioxide uma kuqhathaniswa nama-MORB akudala ngenhloso yokuhlanganisa idatha) kanye nokusabela okubangelwa ukususwa kwe-carbonization kwe-crustal. Idwala legesi eliphumayo.
Kubikwa imigqa exubile phakathi kokwakheka kwe-mantle kanye namalungu okugcina e-limestone kanye ne-organic sediment ukuze kuqhathaniswe. Amabhokisi amelela izindawo ze-fumarole zase-Ischia, e-Campi Flegrei nase-Somma-Vesvius 59, 60, 61. Isampula ye-BdM isesimweni esixubile sentaba-mlilo yase-Campania. Igesi ye-endmember yomugqa oxubile ingumthombo we-mantle, okuyigesi ekhiqizwa yi-decarburization reaction yamaminerali e-carbonate.
Izingxenye ze-Seismic L1 kanye ne-L2 (Izithombe 1b kanye no-7) zibonisa ukuguquka phakathi kwe-BdM kanye nokulandelana kwe-distal stratigraphic kwezifunda ze-Somma-Vesuvius (L1, Umfanekiso 7a) kanye ne-Campi Flegrei (L2, Umfanekiso 7b) zezintaba-mlilo. I-BdM ibonakala ngokuba khona kwezakhiwo ezimbili ezinkulu ze-seismic (MS kanye ne-PS ku-Fig. 7). Ephezulu (MS) ibonisa izibonisi ezingaphansi kwe-amplitude ephezulu kuya kwephakathi kanye nokuqhubeka kwe-lateral (Fig. 7b, c). Le ngqimba ihlanganisa i-sediment yasolwandle edonswa uhlelo lwe-Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) futhi yakhiwe isihlabathi nobumba 23. Ingqimba ye-PS engaphansi (Fig. 7b–d) ibonakala ngesigaba esingahlelekile kuya esicacile ngesimo samakholomu noma ama-hourglasses. Ingxenye ephezulu ye-sediment ye-PS yakha izindunduma zasolwandle (Fig. 7d). Lezi jiometri ezifana ne-diapir zibonisa ukungena kwezinto ezibonakalayo ze-PS kuma-deposit aphezulu e-MS. I-Uplift inesibopho sokwakheka kwama-folds namaphutha ezithinta ungqimba lwe-MS kanye nezindawo ezimbozwe yizicucu zanamuhla zephansi lolwandle lwe-BdM (Isithombe 7b–d). Isikhawu se-MS stratigraphic sihlukaniswe ngokusobala engxenyeni ye-ENE yesigaba se-L1, kuyilapho siba mhlophe sibheke ku-BdM ngenxa yokuba khona kongqimba olugcwele igesi (GSL) olumbozwe amazinga athile angaphakathi ochungechunge lwe-MS (Isithombe 7a). Ama-gravity cores aqoqwe phezulu kwe-BdM ahambisana nongqimba olucacile lokuzamazama komhlaba abonisa ukuthi ama-40 cm aphezulu aqukethe isihlabathi esifakwe muva nje kuze kube manje; )24,25 kanye nezingcezu ze-pumice ezivela ekuqhumeni okuqhumayo kweCampi Flegrei ye-“Naples Yellow Tuff” (14.8 ka)26. Isigaba esicacile sesendlalelo se-PS asinakuchazwa ngezinqubo zokuxuba ezixubile zodwa, ngoba izendlalelo ezixubile ezihlobene nokudilika komhlaba, ukugeleza kodaka kanye nokugeleza kwe-pyroclastic okutholakala ngaphandle kwe-BdM eGulf of Naples akubonakali kahle 21,23,24. Siphetha ngokuthi izindawo zokuzamazama komhlaba ze-BdM PS ezibonwe kanye nokubonakala kwesendlalelo se-PS esingaphansi kolwandle (Umfanekiso 7d) sibonisa ukuphakama kwegesi yemvelo.
(a) Iphrofayili yokuzamazama komhlaba enethrekhi eyodwa L1 (umzila wokuzulazula kuFig. 1b) ekhombisa ukuhlelwa kwendawo kwekholomu (i-pagoda). I-pagoda iqukethe amadiphozithi angahlelekile e-pumice nesihlabathi. Ingqimba egcwele igesi ekhona ngaphansi kwe-pagoda isusa ukuqhubeka kwezakhiwo ezijulile. (b) Iphrofayili yokuzamazama komhlaba enesiteshi esisodwa L2 (umzila wokuzulazula kuFig. 1b), eqokomisa ukuqhekeka kanye nokuguquka kwezindunduma zasolwandle, amadiphozithi esihlabathi sasolwandle (MS), kanye ne-pumice (PS). (c) Imininingwane yokuguquguquka ku-MS kanye ne-PS ibikwe ku-(c,d). Uma sicabanga ngejubane elingu-1580 m/s endaweni engenhla, i-100 ms imelela cishe ama-80 m esikalini esiqondile.
Izici ze-BdM ezihambisana nokwakheka kanye nokwakheka zifana nezinye izinkambu ze-hydrothermal kanye negesi hydrate ezingaphansi kolwandle emhlabeni jikelele2,12,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34 futhi zivame ukuhlotshaniswa nokuphakama (ama-vaults kanye nezindunduma) kanye nokukhishwa kwegesi (ama-cones, imigodi).Ama-cones kanye nemigodi ehambisana ne-BdM kanye nezindunduma ezinde zibonisa ukungena okulawulwa ngokwesakhiwo (Izithombe 2 no-3). Ukuhlelwa kwendawo kwezindunduma, imigodi kanye nemigodi esebenzayo kusikisela ukuthi ukusatshalaliswa kwazo kulawulwa ngokwengxenye ukuqhekeka komthelela we-NW-SE kanye ne-NE-SW (Isithombe 4b). Lezi yizigameko ezikhethwayo zezinhlelo zamaphutha ezithinta izindawo zezintaba-mlilo zaseCampi Flegrei kanye neSomma-Vesuvius kanye neGulf of Naples. Ikakhulukazi, isakhiwo sangaphambili silawula indawo yokukhishwa kwegesi kusuka emgodini weCampi Flegrei35. Ngakho-ke siphetha ngokuthi amaphutha kanye nokuqhekeka eGulf of Naples amelela indlela ekhethwayo yokufuduka kwegesi iye phezulu, isici esabelwana ngaso nezinye i-hydrothermal ezilawulwa ngokwesakhiwo. izinhlelo36,37. Okuphawulekayo ukuthi amakhoni nemigodi ye-BdM bekungahlotshaniswa njalo nezindunduma (Isithombe 3a, c). Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi lezi zindunduma azimeleli ngempela izandulela zokwakheka kwemigodi, njengoba abanye ababhali bephakamise izindawo ze-gas hydrate32,33. Iziphetho zethu zisekela umbono wokuthi ukuphazamiseka kwezihlabathi zasolwandle akuhlali kuholela ekwakhekeni kwemigodi.
Ukukhishwa kwamagesi okuqoqwe kathathu kubonisa izimpawu zamakhemikhali ezivamile koketshezi olusebenzisa amanzi ashisayo, okungukuthi ikakhulukazi i-CO2 enokugxila okukhulu kwamagesi anciphisayo (i-H2S, i-CH4 ne-H2) kanye nama-hydrocarbon alula (ikakhulukazi i-benzene ne-propylene)38,39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 (Ithebula S1). Ukuba khona kwamagesi asemoyeni (njenge-O2), okungalindelekile ukuthi abe khona ekukhishweni kwamanzi angaphansi komhlaba, kungase kubangelwe ukungcola okuvela emoyeni oncibilikisiwe emanzini olwandle okuthintana namagesi agcinwe emabhokisini epulasitiki asetshenziselwa ukusampula, njengoba ama-ROV ekhishwa phansi kolwandle aye olwandle ukuze avukele. Ngokuphambene nalokho, amanani amahle e-δ15N ​​kanye ne-N2/Ar ephezulu (kufika ku-480) ephakeme kakhulu kune-ASW (amanzi agcwele umoya) kusikisela ukuthi iningi le-N2 likhiqizwa emithonjeni engaphandle komoya, ngokuvumelana nomsuka oyinhloko wamanzi ashisayo wala magesi. Umsuka wegesi i-BdM osebenzisa amanzi ashisayo uqinisekiswa okuqukethwe yi-CO2 ne-He kanye ne-isotopic yawo. izimpawu. Ama-isotope e-carbon (δ13C-CO2 kusukela ku--0.93% kuya ku-+0.4%) kanye namanani e-CO2/3He (kusukela ku-1.7 × 1010 kuya ku-4.1 × 1010) asikisela ukuthi amasampula e-BdM angowendlela exubile yama-fumarole azungeze amalungu e-Gulf of Naples' mantle end kanye ne-decarbonization. Ubudlelwano phakathi kwamagesi akhiqizwa yi-reaction (Isithombe 6). Ngokuqondile, amasampula egesi e-BdM atholakala ngendlela yokuxuba cishe endaweni efanayo noketshezi oluvela ezintabeni eziseduze zaseCampi Flegrei naseSomma-Veusivus. Ane-crustal kakhulu kune-Ischia fumaroles, eziseduze nokuphela kwe-mantle. I-Somma-Vesuvius kanye ne-Campi Flegrei zinamanani aphezulu e-3He/4He (R/Ra phakathi kuka-2.6 no-2.9) kune-BdM (R/Ra phakathi kuka-1.66 no-1.96; Ithebula S1). Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi ukwengezwa nokuqongelela kwe-radiogenic He kwavela ku- umthombo ofanayo we-magma owaphakela izintaba-mlilo zaseSomma-Vesuvius naseCampi Flegrei. Ukungabikho kwezingxenyana zekhabhoni eziphilayo ezitholakalayo ekukhishweni kwe-BdM kusikisela ukuthi inhlabathi yezinto eziphilayo ayihilelekile enqubweni yokukhipha igesi ye-BdM.
Ngokusekelwe kudatha ebikwe ngenhla kanye nemiphumela evela kumamodeli okuhlola ezakhiwo ezifana nedome ezihlotshaniswa nezifunda ezicebile ngegesi engaphansi kolwandle, ukucindezela kwegesi okujulile kungaba yimbangela yokwakheka kwamadome e-BdM esikali samakhilomitha. Ukuze silinganisele i-Pdef yokucindezela ngokweqile okuholela endaweni yokugcina i-BdM, sisebenzise imodeli ye-mechanics ye-thin-plate33,34 sicabanga ukuthi, kusukela kudatha eqoqwe ye-morphological kanye neye-seismic, indawo yokugcina i-BdM iyishidi le-radius elingaphansi kwendilinga elikhulu kunediphozithi ethambile ethambile ene-viscous. Ukunyakaza okuphezulu okuqondile w kanye nobukhulu h be (Isithombe Esingeziwe S1). I-Pdef umehluko phakathi kokucindezela okuphelele kanye nokucindezela kwe-rock static kanye nokucindezela kwekholomu yamanzi. Ku-BdM, i-radius icishe ibe ngu-2,500 m, w ingu-20 m, kanti i-h ephezulu elinganisiwe kusukela kuphrofayili yokuzamazama komhlaba icishe ibe ngu-100 m. Sibala i-Pdef 46Pdef = w 64 D/a4 kusukela ebudlelwaneni, lapho i-D ingukuqina kwe-flexural; I-D inikezwa yi-(E h3)/[12(1 – ν2)], lapho i-E iyi-modulus ye-Young yediphozithi, i-ν iyisilinganiso sikaPoisson (~0.5)33. Njengoba izakhiwo zemishini ze-BdM sediments zingenakulinganiswa, sibeka i-E = 140 kPa, okuyinani elifanele le-sediments yesihlabathi sasogwini 47 efana ne-BdM14,24. Asicabangi ngamanani aphezulu e-E abikwe ezincwadini ze-silt clay deposits (300 < E < 350,000 kPa)33,34 ngoba i-BDM deposits yakhiwa kakhulu yisihlabathi, hhayi i-silt noma ubumba oluyi-silt24. Sithola i-Pdef = 0.3 Pa, okuhambisana nezilinganiso zezinqubo zokuphakamisa phansi kolwandle ezindaweni ze-gas hydrate basin, lapho i-Pdef ihluka khona kusuka ku-10-2 kuya ku-103 Pa, ngamanani aphansi amelela i-w/a ephansi kanye/noma yini. Ku-BdM, ukunciphisa ukuqina ngenxa yokugcwala kwegesi yendawo ye-sediment kanye/noma Ukuvela kokuqhekeka okukhona kungase kube nomthelela ekwehlulekeni nasekukhishweni kwegesi okulandelayo, okuvumela ukwakheka kwezakhiwo zokungenisa umoya ezibonwe. Amaphrofayili okuzamazama komhlaba aqoqwe abonisiwe (Isithombe 7) abonise ukuthi izinsalela ze-PS ziphakanyisiwe kusuka ku-GSL, zisunduza izinsalela zasolwandle ze-MS eziphezu kwazo, okuholele ezindundumeni, ekugoqekeni, emaphutheni, kanye nokusikeka kwezinsalela (Isithombe 7b, c). Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi i-pumice endala engu-14.8 kuya ku-12 ka ingene engqimbeni ye-MS encane ngenqubo yokuthutha igesi ephezulu. Izici zesimo sesakhiwo se-BdM zingabonakala njengomphumela wokucindezela ngokweqile okudalwe ukukhishwa koketshezi okukhiqizwa yi-GSL. Njengoba ukukhishwa okusebenzayo kungabonakala kusuka phansi kolwandle kuze kube ngaphezu kuka-170 m bsl48, sicabanga ukuthi ukucindezela koketshezi ngaphakathi kwe-GSL kudlula u-1,700 kPa. Ukufuduka kwamagesi phezulu ezinsalela nakho kwaba nomthelela wokuhlanza izinto eziqukethwe ku-MS, okuchaza ukuba khona kwezinsalela eziphazamisekile kuma-gravity cores athathwe ku-BdM25. Ngaphezu kwalokho, Ukucindezela ngokweqile kwe-GSL kudala uhlelo lokuqhekeka oluyinkimbinkimbi (iphutha le-polygonal ku-Fig. 7b). Ngokubambisana, lokhu kwakheka, isakhiwo, kanye nokuhlelwa kwe-stratigraphic, okubizwa ngokuthi “ama-pagoda”49,50, ekuqaleni kwakubangelwa imiphumela yesibili yokwakheka kweqhwa elidala, futhi okwamanje kuchazwa njengemiphumela yokwenyuka kwegesi31,33 noma ama-evaporites50. Emaphethelweni ezwekazi laseCampania, ama-sediment ahwamukayo ayivelakancane, okungenani ngaphakathi kwamakhilomitha amathathu aphezulu oqweqwe. Ngakho-ke, indlela yokukhula kwama-pagoda e-BdM cishe izolawulwa ukwenyuka kwegesi kuma-sediment. Lesi siphetho sisekelwa yizindawo ezibonakalayo zokuzamazama komhlaba ze-pagoda (Fig. 7), kanye nedatha ye-gravity core njengoba kubikwe ngaphambilini24, lapho isihlabathi sanamuhla siqhuma khona nge-'Pomici Principali'25 kanye ne-'Naples Yellow Tuff'26 Campi Flegrei.Ngaphezu kwalokho, ama-PS deposits ahlasela futhi ashintsha ungqimba oluphezulu lwe-MS (Fig. 7d).Lolu hlelo lwesakhiwo lusikisela ukuthi I-pagoda imele isakhiwo sokuvukela hhayi nje umbhobho wegesi. Ngakho-ke, izinqubo ezimbili eziyinhloko zilawula ukwakheka kwe-pagoda: a) ubuningi be-sediment ethambile buyancipha njengoba igesi ingena isuka ngaphansi; b) ingxube ye-gas-sediment iyakhuphuka, okuwukugoqeka okubonakalayo, ukuphahlazeka kanye nokuqhekeka. Imbangela yokufakwa kwe-MS (Isithombe 7). Kuphakanyiswe indlela efanayo yokwakheka kwama-pagoda ahlotshaniswa nama-gas hydrate e-South Scotia Sea (Antarctica). Ama-BdM pagoda avele ngamaqembu ezindaweni ezinamagquma, futhi isilinganiso sawo esiqondile sasingu-70-100 m ngesikhathi sokuhamba ngezindlela ezimbili (TWTT) (Isithombe 7a). Ngenxa yokuba khona kwama-MS undulations kanye nokucabangela i-stratigraphy ye-BdM gravity core, siphetha ngokuthi iminyaka yokwakheka kwezakhiwo zama-pagoda ingaphansi kuka-14-12 ka. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukukhula kwalezi zakhiwo kusasebenza (Isithombe 7d) njengoba amanye ama-pagoda ehlasele futhi aguquguqula isihlabathi se-BdM sanamuhla esingaphezulu (Isithombe 7d).
Ukwehluleka kwe-pagoda ukuwela phansi kolwandle lwanamuhla kubonisa ukuthi (a) ukunyuka kwegesi kanye/noma ukuyeka kwendawo ukuxubana kwegesi ne-sediment, kanye/noma (b) ukugeleza okungenzeka kwe-lateral kwengxube yegesi ne-sediment akuvumeli inqubo yokucindezela ngokweqile yendawo. Ngokusho kwemodeli yethiyori ye-diapir52, ukugeleza kwe-lateral kubonisa ibhalansi engemihle phakathi kwesilinganiso sokuphakelwa kwengxube yegesi yodaka kusuka ngezansi kanye nesilinganiso lapho i-pagoda iqhubekela phezulu. Ukwehla kwesilinganiso sokuphakelwa kungahlobene nokwanda kobuningi bengxube ngenxa yokunyamalala kokuphakelwa kwegesi. Imiphumela efingqiwe ngenhla kanye nokuphakama okulawulwa ukugeleza kwe-pagoda kusenza sikwazi ukulinganisa ukuphakama kwekholomu yomoya hg. Ukugeleza kunikezwa yi-ΔP = hgg (ρw – ρg), lapho i-g ingu-gravity (9.8 m/s2) kanye ne-ρw kanye ne-ρg kungubuningi bamanzi negesi, ngokulandelana. I-ΔP iyisamba se-Pdef ebalwe ngaphambilini kanye nengcindezi ye-lithostatic Plith yepuleti le-sediment, okungukuthi i-ρsg h, lapho ρs yi-sediment density. Kulokhu, inani le-hg elidingekayo ukuze kube nokugeleza okufiselekayo linikezwa yi-hg = (Pdef + Plith)/[g (ρw – ρg)]. Ku-BdM, sibeka i-Pdef = 0.3 Pa kanye ne-h = 100 m (bheka ngenhla), ρw = 1,030 kg/m3, ρs = 2,500 kg/m3, ρg ayinakwa ngoba ρw ≫ρg. Sithola i-hg = 245 m, inani elimelela ukujula kwephansi le-GSL.ΔP ingu-2.4 MPa, okuyingcindezi edingekayo ukuze kuphulwe phansi kolwandle lwe-BdM futhi kwakhiwe imigodi yomoya.
Ukwakheka kwegesi ye-BdM kuhambisana nemithombo ye-mantle eshintshiwe ngokungezwa koketshezi oluhambisana nokusabela kwe-decarbonization kwamadwala aqinile (Isithombe 6). Ukuqondana kwe-EW okungalungile kwe-BdM domes kanye nezintaba-mlilo ezisebenzayo njenge-Ischia, i-Campi Flegre, kanye ne-Soma-Vesuvius, kanye nokwakheka kwamagesi akhishwayo, kusikisela ukuthi amagesi akhishwayo avela ku-mantle ngaphansi kwesifunda sonke sentaba-mlilo saseNaples axubile. Uketshezi oluningi oluqinile lusuka entshonalanga (Ischia) luye empumalanga (i-Somma-Vesuivus) (Izithombe 1b no-6).
Siphethe ngokuthi e-Bay of Naples, amakhilomitha ambalwa ukusuka echwebeni laseNaples, kunesakhiwo esifana nedome esingamakhilomitha angu-25 ububanzi esithinteka yinqubo yokukhipha igesi esebenzayo futhi ebangelwa ukubekwa kwama-pagoda namagquma. Njengamanje, izimpawu ze-BdM zisikisela ukuthi i-turbulence engeyona i-magmatic53 ingase ibe ngaphambi kwentaba-mlilo yombungu, okungukuthi ukukhishwa kwe-magma kanye/noma uketshezi olushisayo kusenesikhathi. Imisebenzi yokuqapha kufanele isetshenziswe ukuhlaziya ukuvela kwezehlakalo kanye nokuthola izimpawu ze-geochemical kanye ne-geophysical ezibonisa ukuphazamiseka okungenzeka kwe-magmatic.
Amaphrofayili ekholomu yamanzi e-acoustic (2D) atholwe ngesikhathi sohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 (Agasti 2014) ku-R/V Urania (CNR) yi-National Research Council Institute of Coastal Marine Environment (IAMC). Ukuhlola isampula ye-acoustic kwenziwa yi-echo sounder yesayensi ehlukanisa imisebe i-Simrad EK60 esebenza ku-38 kHz. Idatha ye-acoustic yaqoshwa ngesivinini esimaphakathi esingamakhilomitha angu-4. Izithombe ze-echosounder eziqoqiwe zasetshenziswa ukuhlonza uketshezi oluphumayo nokuchaza ngokunembile indawo yalo endaweni yokuqoqwa (phakathi kuka-74 no-180 m bsl). Linganisa amapharamitha angokomzimba namakhemikhali kukholomu yamanzi usebenzisa ama-probe amaningi (ukuqhuba, izinga lokushisa kanye nokujula, i-CTD). Idatha yaqoqwa kusetshenziswa i-CTD 911 probe (SeaBird, Electronics Inc.) futhi yacutshungulwa kusetshenziswa isofthiwe ye-SBED-Win32 (Seasave, inguqulo 7.23.2). Ukuhlolwa okubonakalayo kolwandle kwenziwa kusetshenziswa idivayisi ye-“Pollux III” (GEItaliana) ROV (imoto esetshenziswa kude) ngamakhamera amabili (aphansi naphezulu).
Ukutholwa kwedatha ye-Multibeam kwenziwa kusetshenziswa uhlelo lwe-Simrad EM710 multibeam sonar oluyi-100 KHz (Kongsberg). Lolu hlelo luxhunywe ohlelweni lokubeka i-differential global ukuqinisekisa amaphutha angaphansi kwe-metric ekubekeni i-beam. I-acoustic pulse inemvamisa engu-100 KHz, i-firing pulse engama-degree angu-150° kanye nokuvulwa okuphelele kwe-400 beams. Linganisa futhi usebenzise amaphrofayili ejubane lomsindo ngesikhathi sangempela ngesikhathi sokutholwa. Idatha icutshungulwe kusetshenziswa isofthiwe ye-PDS2000 (Reson-Thales) ngokwezinga le-International Hydrographic Organisation (https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-44_5E.pdf) ukuze kuqondiswe ukuzulazula nokulungiswa kwamagagasi. Ukunciphisa umsindo ngenxa yokukhuphuka kwezinsimbi ngengozi kanye nokukhishwa kwe-beam esezingeni eliphansi kwenziwa ngamathuluzi okuhlela amabhendi kanye nokususa i-spiking. Ukutholwa kwejubane lomsindo okuqhubekayo kwenziwa yisiteshi se-keel esiseduze ne-transducer ye-multi-beam futhi kuthola futhi kusebenzise amaphrofayili ejubane lomsindo wesikhathi sangempela kukholamu yamanzi njalo emahoreni angu-6-8 ukuze kunikezwe ijubane lomsindo lesikhathi sangempela le-beam efanele. ukuqondisa. Isethi yonke yedatha iqukethe cishe amakhilomitha angu-440 (ukujula okungu-0-1200 m). Idatha yasetshenziselwa ukuhlinzeka ngemodeli yesimo sedijithali esinesinqumo esiphezulu (i-DTM) ephawulwa usayizi weseli legridi elingu-1 m. I-DTM yokugcina (Umfanekiso 1a) yenziwe ngedatha yendawo (>0 m ngaphezu kolwandle) etholwe kusayizi weseli legridi elingu-20 m yi-Italian Geo-Military Institute.
Iphrofayili yedatha yokuzamazama komhlaba enesiteshi esisodwa esingamakhilomitha angu-55, eqoqwe ngesikhathi sohambo oluphephile olwandle ngo-2007 nango-2014, yamboza indawo engamakhilomitha-skwele angaba ngu-113, womabili ku-R/V Urania. Amaphrofayili e-Marisk (isb., iphrofayili yokuzamazama komhlaba ye-L1, Umfanekiso 1b) atholwe ngokusebenzisa uhlelo lwe-boomer lwe-IKB-Seistec. Iyunithi yokuthola iqukethe i-catamaran engamamitha angu-2.5 lapho kubekwa khona umthombo kanye ne-receiver. Isiginesha somthombo siqukethe i-peak eyodwa enhle ebonakala ebangeni lemvamisa engu-1-10 kHz futhi ivumela ukuxazulula izibonisi ezihlukaniswe ngamasentimitha angu-25. Amaphrofayili okuzamazama komhlaba aphephile atholwe kusetshenziswa umthombo wokuzamazama komhlaba we-Geospark ongu-1.4 Kj ohlanganiswe nesofthiwe ye-Geospark (i-Geo Marine Survey System). Uhlelo luqukethe i-catamaran equkethe umthombo we-1-6.02 KHz ongena kuma-millisecond angu-400 esihlabathini esithambile ngaphansi kolwandle, onesinqumo esiqondile esingu-30 cm. Womabili amadivayisi e-Safe kanye ne-Marsik atholakale ngesilinganiso sama-shots angu-0.33/sec ngesivinini somkhumbi <3 Kn. Idatha icutshungulwe futhi yethulwa kusetshenziswa isofthiwe ye-Geosuite Allworks enohlelo lokusebenza olulandelayo: ukulungiswa kokukhula, ukuthulisa ikholomu yamanzi, ukuhlunga kwe-bandpass IIR okungu-2-6 KHz, kanye ne-AGC.
Igesi evela ku-fumarole engaphansi kwamanzi yaqoqwa phansi kolwandle kusetshenziswa ibhokisi lepulasitiki elihlonyiswe nge-diaphragm yerabha ohlangothini lwayo olungaphezulu, ibekwe phansi yi-ROV phezu komoya. Uma amabhamuza omoya angena ebhokisini esewashintshe ngokuphelele amanzi olwandle, i-ROV ibuyela ekujuleni okungu-1 m, bese umgibeli edlulisela igesi eqoqwe nge-septum yerabha iye kumaflaski amabili engilazi angu-60 mL akhishwe kusengaphambili ahlonyiswe ngama-stopcock e-Teflon lapho i-One yagcwaliswa khona nge-20 mL yesisombululo se-5N NaOH (iflaski yohlobo lwe-Gegenbach). Izinhlobo zegesi ye-acid eyinhloko (i-CO2 ne-H2S) zincibilikiswa esixazululweni se-alkaline, kuyilapho izinhlobo zegesi ezincibilikayo eziphansi (i-N2, i-Ar+O2, i-CO, i-H2, i-He, i-Ar, i-CH4 kanye nama-hydrocarbon alula) zigcinwa endaweni yekhanda lebhodlela lokuhlola. Amagesi ancibilikayo angaphili ahlaziywe yi-gas chromatography (GC) kusetshenziswa i-Shimadzu 15A ehlonyiswe ngekholomu yesihluzo sama-molecule angu-5A engamamitha ayi-10 ubude kanye ne-thermal conductivity detector (TCD) 54. I-Argon kanye I-O2 ihlaziywe kusetshenziswa i-chromatograph yegesi ye-Thermo Focus ehlonyiswe ngekholomu yesihluzo se-capillary molecular engu-30 m ubude kanye ne-TCD. Ama-methane nama-hydrocarbon alula ahlaziywe kusetshenziswa i-Shimadzu 14A gas chromatograph ehlonyiswe ngekholomu yensimbi engagqwali engu-10 m ubude egcwele i-Chromosorb PAW 80/100 mesh, embozwe nge-23% SP 1700 kanye ne-flame ionization detector (FID). Isigaba soketshezi sisetshenziswe ekuhlaziyweni kwe-1) CO2, njengoba, i-titrated ngesisombululo se-0.5 N HCl (Metrohm Basic Titrino) kanye ne-2) H2S, njengoba, ngemva kwe-oxidation ene-5 mL H2O2 (33%), yi-ion chromatography (IC) (IC) (Wantong 761). Iphutha lokuhlaziya le-titration, i-GC kanye nokuhlaziywa kwe-IC lingaphansi kuka-5%. Ngemva kwezinqubo ezijwayelekile zokukhipha kanye nokuhlanza izingxube zegesi, i-13C/12C CO2 (evezwe njenge-δ13C-CO2% kanye ne-V-PDB) ihlaziywe kusetshenziswa i- I-Finningan Delta S mass spectrometer55,56. Izindinganiso ezisetshenziswe ukulinganisa ukunemba kwangaphandle kwakuyi-Carrara kanye ne-San Vincenzo marble (yangaphakathi), i-NBS18 kanye ne-NBS19 (yamazwe ngamazwe), kuyilapho iphutha lokuhlaziya kanye nokuphindaphindeka kwakungu-±0.05% kanye no-±0.1%, ngokulandelana.
Amanani e-δ15N (avezwa njengo-% vs. Air) kanye ne-40Ar/36Ar anqunywe kusetshenziswa i-Agilent 6890 N gas chromatograph (GC) ehlanganiswe ne-Finnigan Delta plusXP continuous flow mass spectrometer. Iphutha lokuhlaziya lithi: δ15N±0.1%, 36Ar<1%, 40Ar<3%. Isilinganiso se-He isotope (evezwa njengo-R/Ra, lapho i-R ingu-3He/4He elinganiswe khona kusampula kanti i-Ra iyisilinganiso esifanayo emkhathini: 1.39 × 10−6)57 yanqunywa elabhorethri ye-INGV-Palermo (e-Italy) 3He, 4He kanye ne-20Ne zanqunywa kusetshenziswa i-dual collector mass spectrometer (i-Helix SFT-GVI)58 ngemuva kokuhlukaniswa kwe-He kanye ne-Ne. Iphutha lokuhlaziya ≤ 0.3%. Izikhala ezijwayelekile ze-He kanye ne-Ne ziyi-<10-14 kanye ne-<10-16 mol, ngokulandelana.
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