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Sixela ubungqina bokunyuka okusebenzayo komgangatho wolwandle kunye nokukhutshwa kwegesi kwiikhilomitha ezininzi ukusuka echwebeni laseNaples (e-Itali). Iipockmarks, iinduli kunye neecraters ziimpawu zomgangatho wolwandle. Ezi zakhiwo zimele iincopho zezakhiwo ezingaphantsi komhlaba, kuquka iipagodas, iimpazamo kunye nokugoba okuchaphazela ulwandle namhlanje. Zirekhode ukunyuka, uxinzelelo kunye nokukhululwa kwe-helium kunye ne-carbon dioxide kwiimpendulo ze-decarbonization ze-mantle melts kunye namatye angaphantsi komhlaba. Ezi gesi kusenokwenzeka ukuba zifana nezo zondla iinkqubo ze-hydrothermal ze-Ischia, iCampi Flegre kunye neSoma-Vesuvius, nto leyo ebonisa umthombo we-mantle oxutywe nolwelo olungaphantsi komhlaba phantsi kweGulf of Naples. Ukwanda kunye nokuqhekeka kolwandle okubangelwa yinkqubo yokuphakamisa igesi kunye noxinzelelo kufuna uxinzelelo olugqithisileyo lwe-2-3 MPa. Ukuphakama kolwandle, iimpazamo, kunye nokukhutshwa kwegesi zizibonakaliso zokuguqulwa okungekho ntaba-mlilo okunokubangela ukuqhuma kolwandle kunye/okanye ukuqhuma kwe-hydrothermal.
Ukukhupha amanzi ashushu kunye negesi emanzini anzulu luphawu oluqhelekileyo kwiinduli eziphakathi kolwandle kunye nemida yeepleyiti ezidibeneyo (kuquka iindawo ezingaphantsi kwamanzi kwi-arcs zesiqithi), ngelixa ukukhupha okubandayo kwe-hydrate yegesi (ii-chlatrates) kudla ngokuba luphawu lweeshelufu zelizwekazi kunye nemida engasebenziyo1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Ukwenzeka kokukhupha amanzi ashushu phantsi kolwandle kwiindawo eziselunxwemeni kuthetha imithombo yobushushu (ama-magma reservoirs) ngaphakathi komphezulu welizwekazi kunye/okanye i-mantle. Oku kukhupha kungandulela ukunyuka kwe-magma kwiingqimba eziphezulu zomphezulu woMhlaba kwaye kufikelele ekuqhumeni nasekubekweni kweentaba-mlilo6. Ke ngoko, ukuchongwa (a) kweempawu ezinxulumene nokuguquguquka okusebenzayo kolwandle kunye (b) nokukhutshwa kwegesi kufutshane neendawo ezihlala abantu ezikunxwemeni ezifana nommandla wentaba-mlilo waseNaples e-Itali (~1 yezigidi zabantu) kubalulekile ekuvavanyeni iintaba-mlilo ezinokubakho. Ukuqhuma okunzulu. Ngaphezu koko, ngelixa iimpawu zesimo sendalo ezinxulumene nokukhutshwa kwegesi eshushu okanye i-hydrate yolwandle ziyaziwa kakhulu ngenxa yeempawu zazo zejoloji kunye nebhayoloji, izinto ezingafaniyo ziimpawu zesimo sendalo ezinxulumene namanzi angaphantsi, Ngaphandle kwezo zenzeka kwiLake 12, zimbalwa iirekhodi. Apha, sibonisa idatha entsha ye-bathymetric, i-seismic, i-water column, kunye ne-geochemical yendawo engaphantsi kwamanzi, ngokwemo kunye nesakhiwo esiyinkimbinkimbi echaphazeleka kukukhutshwa kwegesi kwiGulf of Naples (eMzantsi Italy), malunga ne-5 km ukusuka kwizibuko laseNaples. Ezi datha zaqokelelwa ngexesha lohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 (Agasti 2014) ngenqanawa i-R/V Urania. Sichaza kwaye sitolika izakhiwo ezingaphantsi kolwandle kunye nezingaphantsi komhlaba apho kuvela khona ukukhutshwa kwegesi, siphande imithombo yokukhupha ulwelo, sichonge kwaye sichaze iindlela ezilawula ukunyuka kwegesi kunye nokuguqulwa okuhambelana nayo, kwaye sixoxe ngempembelelo ye-volcanology.
IGulf of Naples yenza umda osentshona wePlio-Quaternary, uxinzeleko olude lweCampania tectonic lwe-NW-SE13,14,15. I-EW ye-Ischia (malunga ne-150-1302 AD), iCampi Flegre crater (malunga ne-300-1538) kunye neSoma-Vesuvius (ukusuka <360-1944) Olu lungelelwaniso luthintela i-bay ukuya emantla AD)15, ngelixa umzantsi ujikeleze iSorrento Peninsula (Umzobo 1a). IGulf of Naples ichatshazelwa yi-NE-SW ekhoyo kunye neempazamo ezibalulekileyo zesibini ze-NW-SE (Umzobo 1)14,15. I-Ischia, iCampi Flegrei kunye neSomma-Vesuvius zibonakaliswa ziimpawu ze-hydrothermal, ukuguqulwa komhlaba, kunye nokunyikima okungaphantsi16,17,18 (umz., isiganeko esinzima eCampi Flegrei ngo-1982-1984, kunye nokuphakama kwe-1.8 m kunye neenyikima ezingamawaka). Izifundo zamva nje19,20 zibonisa ukuba kukho isenokuba lunxibelelwano phakathi kwamandla eSoma-Vesuvius kunye nalawo eCampi Flegre, mhlawumbi anxulunyaniswa namachibi 'anzulu' e-single magma. Umsebenzi wentaba-mlilo kunye nokushukuma kolwandle kwi-36 ka yokugqibela yeCampi Flegrei kunye ne-18 ka yeSomma Vesuvius zilawule inkqubo ye-sedimentary yeGulf of Naples. Inqanaba eliphantsi lolwandle kwi-last glacial maximum (18 ka) kukhokelele ekubuyeleni kwe-offshore-shallow sedimentary system, eyathi kamva yazaliswa ziziganeko ezigqithisileyo ngexesha le-Late Pleistocene-Holocene. Ukukhutshwa kwegesi phantsi kwamanzi kuye kwafunyanwa kwisiqithi sase-Ischia kunye nonxweme lwaseCampi Flegre kunye kufutshane neNtaba iSoma-Vesuvius (Umzobo 1b).
(a) Ulungelelwaniso lwesimo kunye nolwakhiwo lweshelufu yelizwekazi kunye neGulf of Naples 15, 23, 24, 48. Amachaphaza ziindawo ezinkulu zokuqhuma kweenqanawa; imigca ebomvu imele iimpazamo ezinkulu. (b) I-Bathymetry yeBay of Naples ene-fluid vents efunyenweyo (amachaphaza) kunye nemigca ye-seismic (imigca emnyama). Imigca etyheli yimikhondo yemigca ye-seismic L1 kunye ne-L2 echazwe kuMfanekiso 6. Imida yezakhiwo ezifana ne-Banco della Montagna (BdM) iphawulwe yimigca eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka eneemigca kwi (a,b). Izikwere ezityheli ziphawula iindawo zeeprofayili zekholamu yamanzi ye-acoustic, kwaye iifreyimu ze-CTD-EMBlank, CTD-EM50 kunye ne-ROV zichazwe kuMfanekiso 5. Isangqa esityheli siphawula indawo yokukhupha igesi yesampulu, kwaye ukwakheka kwayo kuboniswe kwiTheyibhile S1. I-Golden Software (http://www.goldensoftware.com/products/surfer) isebenzisa imizobo eyenziwe yiSurfer® 13.
Ngokusekelwe kwidatha efunyenwe ngexesha lohambo lwenqanawa lwe-SAFE_2014 (Agasti 2014) (jonga iiMethods), iDigital Terrain Model (DTM) entsha yeGulf of Naples enesisombululo se-1 m yakhiwe. I-DTM ibonisa ukuba umgangatho wolwandle osemazantsi ePort of Naples ubonakala ngomphezulu othambekele kancinci ojonge emazantsi (ithambeka ≤3°) ophazanyiswa sisakhiwo esifana nedome esiyi-5.0 × 5.3 km, esaziwa apha ekuhlaleni njengeBanco della Montagna (BdM). Umzobo. 1a,b).I-BdM ikhula kubunzulu obumalunga ne-100 ukuya kwi-170 yeemitha, iimitha ezili-15 ukuya kuma-20 ngaphezulu komgangatho wolwandle olujikelezileyo.Idome ye-BdM ibonise imo efana nenduli ngenxa yeenduli ezingama-280 ezingaphantsi kwesangqa ukuya kwi-oval (Umzobo 2a), iikhowuni ezingama-665, kunye neemingxuma ezingama-30 (Umzobo 3 kunye no-4).Induli inokuphakama okuphezulu kunye nokujikeleza kwe-22 m kunye ne-1,800 m, ngokulandelanayo.Ukujikeleza [C = 4π(indawo/iperimitha2)] kweenduli kwehla ngokunyuka komjikelezo (Umzobo 2b).Ii-axial ratios zeenduli ziphakathi kwe-1 kunye ne-6.5, kunye neenduli ezine-axial ratio >2 ezibonisa i-N45°E ekhethwayo + i-15° strike kunye ne-N105°E yesibini esasazekileyo, esasazekileyo ngakumbi ukuya kwi-N145°E (Umzobo 2c). Kukho iikhowuni ezizimeleyo okanye ezilungelelanisiweyo kwiplane yeBdM naphezu kwenduli (Umzobo 3a, b). Ulungiselelo lwekhowuni lulandela ulungiselelo lweenduli apho zikhoyo. Iikhowuni zihlala zikwindawo ethe tyaba yolwandle (Umzobo 3c) kwaye ngamanye amaxesha kwiinduli. Ubuninzi bendawo yeekhowuni kunye neekhowuni zibonisa ukuba ulungelelwaniso oluphambili lwe-NE-SW lumisa imida yasempuma-mpuma nakumzantsi-ntshona wedome yeBdM (Umzobo 4a, b); indlela ye-NW-SE engeyondelanga kangako ikwindawo ephakathi yeBdM.
(a) Imodeli yomhlaba wedijithali (ubungakanani beseli eyi-1 m) yedome yeBanco della Montagna (BdM). (b) Umjikelezo kunye nokujikeleza kweenduli zeBdM. (c) Umlinganiselo we-axial kunye ne-angle (orientation) ye-axis enkulu ye-ellipse efanelekileyo ejikeleze induli. Impazamo eqhelekileyo yemodeli yeDigital Terrain yi-0.004 m; iimpazamo eziqhelekileyo ze-perimeter kunye nokujikeleza ziyi-4.83 m kunye ne-0.01, ngokwahlukeneyo, kwaye iimpazamo eziqhelekileyo ze-axial ratio kunye ne-angle ziyi-0.04 kunye ne-3.34°, ngokwahlukeneyo.
Iinkcukacha zeekhowuni ezichongiweyo, ii-craters, iinduli kunye nemingxuma kummandla we-BdM ezithathwe kwi-DTM kuMfanekiso 2.
(a) Iikhowuni zokulungelelanisa kwindawo ethe tyaba yolwandle; (b) iikhowuni kunye nee-craters kwiinduli ezibhityileyo zase-NW-SE; (c) ii-pockmarks kumphezulu ontywilisiweyo kancinci.
(a) Ukusasazwa kwendawo yee-craters ezifunyenweyo, ii-holes, kunye nokukhutshwa kwegesi esebenzayo. (b) Uxinano lwendawo yee-craters kunye nee-holes ezixelwe kwi-(a) (inani/0.2 km2).
Sichonge ukukhutshwa kwegesi okungama-37 kummandla we-BdM kwimifanekiso ye-ROV water column echo sounder kunye nokujongwa ngqo komgangatho wolwandle okufunyenwe ngexesha lohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 ngo-Agasti 2014 (Imifanekiso 4 kunye no-5). Ukungahambi kakuhle kwezi zinto zikhutshwayo kubonisa iimilo ezinde ngokuthe nkqo eziphakama ukusuka phantsi kolwandle, ziqala ngokuthe nkqo phakathi kwe-12 kunye ne-70 m (Umzobo 5a). Kwezinye iindawo, ukungahambelani kakuhle kwezi zinto zenze "uloliwe" oqhubekayo. Ii-bubble plumes ezibonwayo zahluka kakhulu: ukusuka ekuphumeni kwe-bubble eqhubekayo, exineneyo ukuya kwiziganeko ezifutshane (I-Supplementary Movie 1). Ukuhlolwa kwe-ROV kuvumela ukuqinisekiswa okubonakalayo kokwenzeka kwe-fluid vents yolwandle kwaye kuqaqambisa ii-pockmarks ezincinci elwandle, ngamanye amaxesha zijikelezwe zi-red sediments ukuya kwi-orenji (Umzobo 5b). Kwezinye iimeko, ii-ROV channels zivuselela ukukhutshwa. Imo ye-vent ibonisa ukuvulwa okujikelezayo phezulu ngaphandle kokuvutha kwikholamu yamanzi. I-pH kwikholamu yamanzi ngaphezulu nje kwendawo yokukhupha ibonise ukwehla okukhulu, okubonisa iimeko ze-asidi ngakumbi kwindawo (Umzobo 5c, d). Ngokukodwa, i-pH engaphezulu kokukhutshwa kwegesi ye-BdM kubunzulu obuyi-75 m yehle ukusuka kwi-8.4 (kubunzulu obuyi-70 m) ukuya kwi-7.8 (kubunzulu obuyi-75 m) (Umzobo 5c), ngelixa ezinye iindawo kwiGulf of Naples zazinamaxabiso e-pH phakathi kwe-0 kunye ne-160 m kubunzulu obuphakathi kwe-8.3 kunye ne-8.5 (Umzobo 5d). Utshintsho olukhulu kubushushu bamanzi olwandle kunye netyuwa belungafumaneki kwiindawo ezimbini ngaphakathi nangaphandle kwendawo ye-BdM yeGulf of Naples. Kubunzulu obuyi-70 m, ubushushu buyi-15 °C kwaye ityuwa imalunga ne-38 PSU (Umzobo 5c, d). Ukulinganisa i-pH, ubushushu, kunye netyuwa kubonise: a) ukuthatha inxaxheba kolwelo olune-asidi oluhambelana nenkqubo yokukhupha igesi ye-BdM kunye b) ukungabikho okanye ukukhutshwa kancinci kakhulu kolwelo olushushu kunye netyuwa.
(a) Ifestile yokufumana iprofayili yekholamu yamanzi ye-acoustic (i-echometer Simrad EK60). Ibhendi eluhlaza ethe nkqo ehambelana nokugqabhuka kwegesi okufunyenweyo kwi-EM50 fluid discharge (malunga ne-75 m ngaphantsi kolwandle) ekwindawo ye-BdM; imiqondiso ye-multiplex esezantsi neyomgangatho wolwandle nayo iyaboniswa (b) iqokelelwe ngesithuthi esilawulwa kude kwingingqi ye-BdM. Ifoto enye ibonisa i-crater encinci (isangqa esimnyama) ejikelezwe yi-sediment ebomvu ukuya kwi-orenji. (c,d) Idatha ye-CTD ye-multiparameter probe ecutshungulwe kusetyenziswa isoftware ye-SBED-Win32 (i-Seasave, inguqulelo 7.23.2). Iipateni zeeparameter ezikhethiweyo (ityuwa, ubushushu, i-pH kunye neoksijini) zekholamu yamanzi engaphezulu kwe-EM50 fluid discharge (ipaneli c) nangaphandle kwephaneli yendawo yokukhupha i-Bdm (d).
Siqokelele iisampulu ezintathu zegesi kwindawo yophando phakathi komhla wama-22 nowama-28 ku-Agasti, ngo-2014. Ezi sampuli zibonise ukwakheka okufanayo, okulawulwa yi-CO2 (934-945 mmol/mol), kulandele ubuninzi obufanelekileyo be-N2 (37-43 mmol/mol), i-CH4 (16-24 mmol/mol) kunye ne-H2S (0.10 mmol/mol) -0.44 mmol/mol), ngelixa i-H2 kunye ne-He bezincinci kakhulu (<0.052 kunye <0.016 mmol/mol, ngokulandelelana) (Umzobo 1b; Itheyibhile S1, Ifilimu eyoNgezelelweyo 2). Ubuninzi obuphezulu be-O2 kunye ne-Ar nabo balinganiswa (ukuya kuthi ga kwi-3.2 kunye ne-0.18 mmol/mol, ngokulandelelana). Isimbuku see-hydrocarbons zokukhanya siqala kwi-0.24 ukuya kwi-0.30 mmol/mol kwaye siquka ii-alkanes ze-C2-C4, ii-aromatics (ikakhulu i-benzene), i-propene kunye nee-compounds ezine-sulfur (thiophene). Ixabiso le-40Ar/36Ar lihambelana umoya (295.5), nangona isampuli ye-EM35 (i-BdM dome) inexabiso le-304, ebonisa ukugqithisa okuncinci kwe-40Ar. Umlinganiselo we-δ15N wawuphezulu kunowomoya (ukuya kuthi ga kwi-+1.98% xa kuthelekiswa noMoya), ngelixa amaxabiso e-δ13C-CO2 ayeqala kwi--0.93 ukuya kwi-0.44% xa kuthelekiswa namaxabiso e-V-PDB.R/Ra (emva kokulungiswa kongcoliseko lomoya kusetyenziswa umlinganiselo we-4He/20Ne) ayephakathi kwe-1.66 kunye ne-1.94, nto leyo ebonisa ukuba kukho inxalenye enkulu ye-mantle He. Ngokudibanisa i-isotope ye-helium ne-CO2 kunye ne-isotope yayo ezinzileyo 22, umthombo wokukhutshwa kwe-BdM unokucaciswa ngakumbi. Kwimephu ye-CO2 ye-CO2/3He ngokuchasene ne-δ13C (Umzobo 6), ukwakheka kwegesi ye-BdM kuthelekiswa nokwe-Ischia, iCampi Flegrei kunye ne-Somma-Vesuvius fumaroles. Umzobo 6 ukwabika imigca yokuxubana phakathi kwemithombo emithathu eyahlukeneyo yekhabhoni. ezinokuthi zibandakanyeke kwimveliso yegesi ye-BdM: ii-melts ezinyibilikisiweyo ezivela kwi-mantle, i-sediments etyebileyo kwi-organic, kunye nee-carbonates. Iisampuli ze-BdM ziwela kumgca wokuxuba oboniswe ziintaba-mlilo ezintathu zaseCampania, oko kukuthi, ukuxubana phakathi kweegesi ze-mantle (ezithathwa njengezityebileyo kancinci kwi-carbon dioxide xa kuthelekiswa nee-MORB zakudala ngenjongo yokufakela idatha) kunye neempendulo ezibangelwa kukususwa kwe-carbonization kwi-crustal rock.
Imigca exutyiweyo phakathi kokwakheka kwe-mantle kunye namalungu okugqibela e-limestone kunye ne-organic sediments zixeliwe ukuze zithelekiswe. Iibhokisi zimele iindawo ze-fumarole zase-Ischia, eCampi Flegrei naseSomma-Vesvius 59, 60, 61. Isampulu ye-BdM ikwindlela exutyiweyo yentaba-mlilo yaseCampania. Igesi ye-endmember yomgca oxutyiweyo ivela kumthombo we-mantle, eyigesi eveliswa yi-decarburization reaction yeeminerali ze-carbonate.
Amacandelo e-Seismic L1 kunye ne-L2 (IiFig. 1b kunye ne-7) abonisa utshintsho phakathi kwe-BdM kunye nolandelelwano lwe-distal stratigraphic lwemimandla ye-volcanic ye-Somma-Vesuvius (L1, Fig. 7a) kunye ne-Campi Flegrei (L2, Fig. 7b). I-BdM ibonakaliswa bubukho bezakhiwo ezimbini ezinkulu ze-seismic (MS kunye ne-PS kwiFig. 7). Ephezulu (MS) ibonisa ii-reflectors ezingaphantsi kwe-amplitude ephezulu ukuya kwephakathi kunye nokuqhubeka kwe-lateral (Fig. 7b, c). Olu lelo luquka i-sediments yolwandle etsalwa yinkqubo ye-Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) kwaye iqulathe isanti kunye nodongwe23. I-PS layer engaphantsi (Fig. 7b–d) ibonakaliswa yi-chaotic ukuya kwi-transparent phase kwimo yeekholamu okanye ii-hourglasses. I-top of the PS sediments yenze ii-seafloor mounds (Fig. 7d). Ezi geometries ezifana ne-diapir zibonisa ukungena kwezinto ze-PS transparent kwi-MS deposits ephezulu. I-Uplift inoxanduva lokwakheka kwee-folds kunye nee-faults ezichaphazela umaleko we-MS kunye neentsalela eziphezu komhlaba wolwandle we-BdM (Umzobo 7b–d). Isithuba se-MS stratigraphic sicacisiwe ngokucacileyo kwinxalenye ye-ENE yecandelo le-L1, ngelixa simhlophe sijonge kwi-BdM ngenxa yokubakho komaleko ogcwele igesi (GSL) ogqunywe ngamanqanaba athile angaphakathi olandelelwano lwe-MS (Umzobo 7a). Ii-gravity cores eziqokelelwe phezulu kwe-BdM ezihambelana nomaleko we-seismic ocacileyo zibonisa ukuba i-40 cm ephezulu inesanti ebekwe kutshanje kwixesha langoku; )24,25 kunye neziqwenga zepumice ezivela kuqhushumbo oluqhumayo lweCampi Flegrei lwe-“Naples Yellow Tuff” (14.8 ka)26. Isigaba esicacileyo somaleko we-PS asinakuchazwa ziinkqubo zokuxuba ezingaqhelekanga zodwa, kuba amaleko angaqhelekanga anxulumene nokudilika komhlaba, ukuhamba kodaka kunye nokuhamba kwe-pyroclastic okufumaneka ngaphandle kwe-BdM kwiGulf of Naples akubonakali ngokwesandi 21,23,24. Sigqiba kwelokuba iindawo ze-BdM PS ze-seismic ezibonwayo kunye nokubonakala komaleko we-PS ongaphantsi kolwandle (Umzobo 7d) zibonisa ukuphakama kwegesi yendalo.
(a) Iprofayili ye-seismic yendlela enye L1 (umkhondo wokuhambahamba kuMfanekiso 1b) ebonisa ulungelelwaniso lwesithuba se-columnar (pagoda). I-pagoda ineediphozithi ezingalawulekiyo ze-pumice kunye nesanti. Umaleko ogcwele igesi okhoyo ngaphantsi kwe-pagoda ususa ukuqhubeka kwezakhiwo ezinzulu. (b) Iprofayili ye-seismic ye-single-channel L2 (umkhondo wokuhambahamba kuMfanekiso 1b), egxininisa ukuqhekeka kunye nokuguquka kweenduli zolwandle, i-marine (MS), kunye neediphozithi zesanti ye-pumice (PS). (c) Iinkcukacha ze-deformation kwi-MS kunye ne-PS zixeliwe ku-(c,d). Xa kucingelwa isantya se-1580 m/s kwindawo ephezulu yesanti, i-100 ms imele malunga ne-80 m kwisikali esithe nkqo.
Iimpawu ze-BdM ezifana neze-subsea hydrothermal kunye ne-gas hydrate global2,12,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34 kwaye zihlala zinxulunyaniswa nokuphakama (ii-vaults kunye neenduli) kunye nokukhupha igesi (ii-cones, ii-pits). Ii-cones kunye nee-pits ezihambelana ne-BdM kunye neenduli ezinde zibonisa ukuvuleka okulawulwa ngokwesakhiwo (Imifanekiso 2 kunye ne-3). Ulungiselelo lwendawo yeenduli, ii-pits kunye nee-vents ezisebenzayo lubonisa ukuba ukusasazwa kwazo kulawulwa ngokuyinxenye zii-impact fractures ze-NW-SE kunye ne-NE-SW (Umzobo 4b). Ezi zii-strikes ezikhethwayo zeenkqubo ze-fault ezichaphazela iindawo ze-volcanic ze-Campi Flegrei kunye ne-Somma-Vesuvius kunye ne-Gulf of Naples. Ngokukodwa, ulwakhiwo lwangaphambili lulawula indawo yokukhupha i-hydrothermal kwi-crater ye-Campi Flegrei35. Ke ngoko sigqiba kwelokuba iimpazamo kunye nee-fractures kwi-Gulf of Naples zimele indlela ekhethwayo yokufuduka kwegesi kumphezulu, uphawu olwabelwana ngalo nezinye ii-hydrothermal ezilawulwa ngokwesakhiwo. iinkqubo36,37. Okuphawulekayo kukuba, ii-BdM cones kunye nee-pits bezingasoloko zinxulunyaniswa nee-dulls (Umzobo 3a, c). Oku kubonisa ukuba ezi nduli azimelanga izinto eziza kuqala ekwakhekeni kwe-pits, njengoko abanye ababhali becebise ngeendawo ze-gas hydrate32,33. Izigqibo zethu zixhasa ingcamango yokuba ukuphazamiseka kwe-dome seafloor akusoloko kukhokelele ekwakhekeni kwe-pits.
Ezi zinto zintathu ziqokelelweyo zikhupha igesi zibonisa iimpawu zeekhemikhali eziqhelekileyo kwiincindi ze-hydrothermal, oko kukuthi, i-CO2 enokuxinana okukhulu kweegesi ezinciphisayo (i-H2S, i-CH4 kunye ne-H2) kunye nee-hydrocarbons ezikhanyayo (ingakumbi i-benzene kunye ne-propylene)38,39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 (Itheyibhile S1). Ubukho beegesi zomoya (ezifana ne-O2), ezingalindelwanga ukuba zibekho kwiincindi ze-submarine, bunokubangelwa kukungcola komoya onyibilikiswe emanzini olwandle odibana neegesi ezigcinwe kwiibhokisi zeplastiki ezisetyenziselwa ukuthatha isampuli, njengoko ii-ROV zikhutshwa kumgangatho wolwandle ziye elwandle ukuze zivukele. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, amaxabiso amahle e-δ15N ​​kunye ne-N2/Ar ephezulu (ukuya kuthi ga kwi-480) ephezulu kakhulu kune-ASW (amanzi agcwele umoya) zibonisa ukuba uninzi lwe-N2 luveliswa kwimithombo engaphandle komoya, ngokuvumelana nemvelaphi ephambili ye-hydrothermal yezi gesi. Imvelaphi ye-hydrothermal-volcanic yegesi ye-BdM iqinisekiswa yimixholo ye-CO2 kunye ne-He kunye ne-isotopic yazo. iimpawu. Ii-isotopes zekhabhoni (δ13C-CO2 ukusuka kwi -0.93% ukuya kwi +0.4%) kunye namaxabiso e-CO2/3He (ukusuka kwi-1.7 × 1010 ukuya kwi-4.1 × 1010) zibonisa ukuba iisampulu ze-BdM zezendlela exutyiweyo yee-fumaroles ezijikeleze amalungu esiphelo seGulf of Naples' mantle kunye ne-decarbonization. Ubudlelwane phakathi kweegesi eziveliswa yi-reaction (Umfanekiso 6). Ngokukodwa, iisampulu zegesi ze-BdM zibekwe ecaleni kwendlela yokuxuba kwindawo efanayo nee-fluids ezivela kwiintaba-mlilo ezikufutshane zeCampi Flegrei kunye neSomma-Veusivus. Zingaphezulu kwe-crustal kune-Ischia fumaroles, ezikufutshane nesiphelo se-mantle. I-Somma-Vesuvius kunye neCampi Flegrei zinexabiso eliphezulu le-3He/4He (R/Ra phakathi kwe-2.6 kunye ne-2.9) kune-BdM (R/Ra phakathi kwe-1.66 kunye ne-1.96; Itheyibhile S1). Oku kubonisa ukuba ukongezwa kunye nokuqokelelwa kwe-radiogenic He yavela kwi umthombo ofanayo we-magma owawusondla iintaba-mlilo zaseSomma-Vesuvius kunye neCampi Flegrei. Ukungabikho kweenxalenye zekhabhoni eziphilayo ezibonwayo kwi-BdM emissions kubonisa ukuba i-organic sediments ayibandakanyeki kwinkqubo yokukhupha igesi kwi-BdM.
Ngokusekelwe kwidatha echazwe apha ngasentla kunye neziphumo ezivela kwiimodeli zovavanyo zezakhiwo ezifana nedome ezinxulumene neendawo eziphantsi kolwandle ezityebileyo ngegesi, uxinzelelo lwegesi olunzulu lunokuba noxanduva lokwakhiwa kweedome zeBdM zesikali seekhilomitha. Ukuqikelela uxinzelelo olugqithisileyo lwePdef olukhokelela kwidome yeBdM, sisebenzise imodeli ye-thin-plate mechanics33,34 sicinga ukuba, kwidatha eqokelelweyo ye-morphological kunye ne-seismic, idome yeBdM yiphepha le-radius elingaphantsi kwesangqa elikhulu kunediphozithi ethambileyo ethambileyo. Utshintsho oluphezulu oluthe nkqo w kunye nobukhulu h be (Umzobo oNcedisayo S1). I-Pdef ngumahluko phakathi koxinzelelo olupheleleyo kunye noxinzelelo lwe-rock static kunye noxinzelelo lwekholamu yamanzi. Kwi-BdM, i-radius imalunga ne-2,500 m, w yi-20 m, kwaye ubuninzi be-h obuqikelelweyo ukusuka kwiprofayili ye-seismic bumalunga ne-100 m. Sibala i-Pdef 46Pdef = w 64 D/a4 ukusuka kulwalamano, apho u-D bubunzima be-flexural; U-D unikwe yi-(E h3)/[12(1 – ν2)], apho u-E eyi-Young's modulus yediphozithi, u-ν ngumlinganiselo kaPoisson (~0.5)33. Ekubeni iipropati ze-mechanical ze-BdM sediments zingenakulinganiswa, sibeka i-E = 140 kPa, elixabiso elifanelekileyo le-sediments yesanti eselunxwemeni 47 efana ne-BdM14,24. Asicingi ngexabiso eliphezulu le-E elichazwe kwiincwadi ze-silt dope deposits (300 < E < 350,000 kPa)33,34 kuba i-BDM deposits ibandakanya ikakhulu isanti, hayi i-silt okanye i-silt dope24. Sifumana i-Pdef = 0.3 Pa, ehambelana noqikelelo lweenkqubo zokuphakamisa umgangatho wolwandle kwiindawo ze-gas hydrate basin, apho i-Pdef yahluka ukusuka kwi-10-2 ukuya kwi-103 Pa, kunye namaxabiso aphantsi amele aphantsi w/a kunye/okanye yintoni. Kwi-BdM, ukunciphisa ukuqina ngenxa yokugcwala kwegesi yendawo ye-sediment kunye/okanye Ukuvela kwee-fractures esele zikhona kunokubangela ukungaphumeleli kunye nokukhululwa kwegesi okulandelayo, okuvumela ukwakheka kwezakhiwo zomoya ezibonisiweyo. Iiprofayili ze-seismic eziqokelelweyo (Umzobo 7) zibonise ukuba ii-PS sediments ziphakanyisiwe ukusuka kwi-GSL, zityhala phezulu ii-MS sediments eziphezu kwayo, nto leyo ebangele iinduli, ukugoba, iimpazamo, kunye nokusikeka kwee-sedimentary (Umzobo 7b, c). Oku kubonisa ukuba i-14.8 ukuya kwi-12 ka ubudala ingenelele kumaleko omncinci we-MS ngenkqubo yokuthutha igesi ephezulu. Iimpawu zesimo se-BdM zinokubonwa njengesiphumo soxinzelelo olugqithisileyo oludalwe kukukhutshwa kolwelo oluveliswa yi-GSL. Ngenxa yokuba ukukhutshwa okusebenzayo kunokubonwa ukusuka kumgangatho wolwandle ukuya kuthi ga kwi-170 m bsl48, sicinga ukuba uxinzelelo olugqithisileyo lolwelo ngaphakathi kwe-GSL ludlula i-1,700 kPa. Ukufuduka okuphezulu kweegesi kwii-sediments nako kube nefuthe lokukhuhla izinto ezikwi-MS, okuchaza ubukho bee-sediments eziphazamisayo kwii-gravity cores ezithathwe kwi-BdM25. Ngaphezu koko, Uxinzelelo olugqithisileyo lwe-GSL ludala inkqubo yokuqhekeka entsonkothileyo (impazamo ye-polygonal kuMfanekiso 7b). Ngokudibeneyo, olu hlobo lokwakheka, ulwakhiwo, kunye nolwakhiwo lwe-stratigraphic, olubizwa ngokuba yi-"pagodas"49,50, ekuqaleni lwalubangelwa ziziphumo zesibini zezakhiwo zeqhwa ezindala, kwaye okwangoku zitolikwa njengeziphumo zokunyuka kwegesi31,33 okanye i-evaporites50. Kwi-continental margin yeCampania, i-evaporative sediments ayinqabile, ubuncinci ngaphakathi kwe-3 km ephezulu ye-crust. Ke ngoko, indlela yokukhula kwe-BdM pagodas inokulawulwa kukunyuka kwegesi kwi-sediments. Esi sigqibo sixhaswa yi-transparent seismic facies ye-pagoda (Umfanekiso 7), kunye nedatha ye-gravity core njengoko kubikwe ngaphambili24, apho isanti yanamhlanje iqhuma nge-'Pomici Principali'25 kunye ne-'Naples Yellow Tuff'26 Campi Flegrei. Ngaphezu koko, ii-PS deposits zahlasela zaza zatshintsha umaleko ophezulu we-MS (Umfanekiso 7d). Olu lungiselelo lwesakhiwo lubonisa ukuba I-pagoda imele isakhiwo sokuvukela hayi nje umbhobho wegesi. Ngoko ke, iinkqubo ezimbini eziphambili zilawula ukwakheka kwe-pagoda: a) uxinano lwe-sediment ethambileyo luyehla njengoko igesi ingena isuka ngaphantsi; b) umxube we-gas-sediment uyenyuka, oku kukugoba okubonakalayo, ukuqhekeka kunye nokuqhekeka. Ibangela ii-MS deposits (Umfanekiso 7). Indlela efanayo yokwakheka iye yacetyiswa kwii-pagodas ezinxulumene ne-gas hydrate kuLwandle lwaseSouth Scotia (Antarctica). Ii-BdM pagodas zavela ngamaqela kwiindawo ezineentaba, kwaye ubungakanani bazo obuthe nkqo buyi-70-100 m ngexesha lokuhamba ngeendlela ezimbini (TWTT) (Umfanekiso 7a). Ngenxa yokubakho kwe-MS undulations kunye nokuqwalasela i-stratigraphy ye-BdM gravity core, sigqiba kwelokuba ubudala bokwakheka kwezakhiwo ze-pagoda bungaphantsi kwe-14-12 ka. Ngaphezu koko, ukukhula kwezi zakhiwo kusasebenza (Umfanekiso 7d) njengoko ezinye ii-pagodas zingene zaza zatshintsha isanti ye-BdM yanamhlanje (Umfanekiso 7d).
Ukungaphumeleli kwe-pagoda ukunqumla ulwandle lwanamhlanje kubonisa ukuba (a) ukunyuka kwegesi kunye/okanye ukuyeka kwendawo yokuxuba igesi kunye ne-sediment, kunye/okanye (b) ukuhamba okunokwenzeka kwecala lomxube wegesi kunye ne-sediment akuvumeli inkqubo yoxinzelelo oluphezulu lwendawo. Ngokwemodeli yethiyori ye-diapir52, ukuhamba kwecala kubonisa ulungelelwaniso olubi phakathi kwesantya sokunikezelwa komxube we-mud-gas ukusuka ngezantsi kunye nesantya apho i-pagoda inyuka khona. Ukuncipha kwesantya sokunikezelwa kunokunxulunyaniswa nokwanda koxinano lomxube ngenxa yokunyamalala kokunikezelwa kwegesi. Iziphumo ezishwankathelwe ngasentla kunye nokunyuka okulawulwa yi-buoyancy kwe-pagoda kusenza sikwazi ukuqikelela ukuphakama kwekholamu yomoya hg. Ukufukama kunikwa yi-ΔP = hgg (ρw – ρg), apho i-g ingumxhuzulane (9.8 m/s2) kunye ne-ρw kunye ne-ρg ziingxinano zamanzi kunye negesi, ngokwahlukeneyo.ΔP sisiphumo se-Pdef ebalwe ngaphambili kunye noxinzelelo lwe-lithostatic Plith yepleyiti ye-sediment, oko kukuthi i-ρsg h, apho I-ρs yi-sediment density. Kule meko, ixabiso le-hg elifunekayo ukuze kubekho ukufutha okufunekayo linikwa yi-hg = (Pdef + Plith)/[g (ρw – ρg)]. Kwi-BdM, sibeka i-Pdef = 0.3 Pa kwaye i-h = 100 m (jonga ngasentla), i-ρw = 1,030 kg/m3, i-ρs = 2,500 kg/m3, i-ρg ayinamsebenzi kuba i-ρw ≫ρg. Sifumana i-hg = 245 m, ixabiso elimele ubunzulu bomzantsi we-GSL. I-ΔP yi-2.4 MPa, oluxinzelelo olugqithisileyo olufunekayo ukuze kuphulwe umgangatho wolwandle we-BdM kwaye kwenziwe ii-vents.
Ukwakheka kwegesi ye-BdM kuhambelana nemithombo ye-mantle eguqulwe kukongezwa kolwelo oluhambelana neempendulo ze-decarbonization zamatye e-crustal (Umzobo 6). Ukulungelelaniswa kwe-EW okurhabaxa kwee-BdM domes kunye neentaba-mlilo ezisebenzayo ezifana ne-Ischia, iCampi Flegre, kunye ne-Soma-Vesuvius, kunye nokwakheka kweegesi ezikhutshwayo, kubonisa ukuba iigesi ezikhutshwayo kwi-mantle engaphantsi kommandla wonke wentaba-mlilo yaseNaples zixutyiwe. Ulwelo oluninzi lwe-crustal luhamba ukusuka entshona (Ischia) ukuya empuma (i-Somma-Vesuivus) (Umzobo 1b kunye no-6).
Sigqibe kwelokuba kwiBay of Naples, iikhilomitha ezimbalwa ukusuka kwizibuko laseNaples, kukho isakhiwo esifana nedome esingama-25 km2 ububanzi esichaphazeleka yinkqubo yokukhupha igesi esebenzayo kwaye ibangelwa kukubekwa kweepagodas kunye neenduli. Okwangoku, iimpawu zeBdM zibonisa ukuba i-non-magmatic turbulence53 isenokuba yangaphambi kwentaba-mlilo yombungu, oko kukuthi ukukhutshwa kwangoko kwe-magma kunye/okanye ulwelo olushushu. Imisebenzi yokubeka esweni kufuneka yenziwe ukuhlalutya ukuguquka kweziganeko kunye nokufumanisa imiqondiso ye-geochemical kunye ne-geophysical ebonisa ukuphazamiseka okunokwenzeka kwe-magmatic.
Iiprofayili zekholamu yamanzi e-acoustic (2D) zifunyenwe ngexesha lohambo lwe-SAFE_2014 (Agasti 2014) kwi-R/V Urania (CNR) yi-National Research Council Institute of Coastal Marine Environment (IAMC). Uvavanyo lwe-acoustic lwenziwe yi-scientific beam-splitting echo sounder i-Simrad EK60 esebenza kwi-38 kHz. Idatha ye-acoustic irekhodwe kwisantya esiphakathi se-4 km. Imifanekiso ye-echosounder eqokelelweyo isetyenziselwe ukuchonga ulwelo kunye nokuchaza ngokuchanekileyo indawo yalo kwindawo yokuqokelela (phakathi kwe-74 kunye ne-180 m bsl). Linganisa iiparameter zomzimba kunye neekhemikhali kwikholamu yamanzi usebenzisa ii-multiparameter probes (ukuqhuba, ubushushu kunye nobunzulu, i-CTD). Idatha iqokelelwe kusetyenziswa i-CTD 911 probe (SeaBird, Electronics Inc.) kwaye icutshungulwe kusetyenziswa isoftware ye-SBED-Win32 (Seasave, inguqulelo 7.23.2). Uhlolo olubonakalayo lolwandle lwenziwe kusetyenziswa isixhobo se-"Pollux III" (GEItaliana) ROV (isithuthi esisebenza kude) ngeekhamera ezimbini (eziphantsi neziphezulu).
Ukufunyanwa kwedatha ye-Multibeam kwenziwe kusetyenziswa inkqubo ye-100 KHz Simrad EM710 multibeam sonar (Kongsberg). Le nkqubo iqhagamshelwe kwinkqubo yokubeka isandi ehlukileyo ukuqinisekisa iimpazamo ezingaphantsi kwe-metric kwindawo yokubeka isandi. I-acoustic pulse ine-frequency ye-100 KHz, i-firing pulse ye-150° degrees kunye nokuvulwa okupheleleyo kwe-400 beams. Linganisa kwaye usebenzise iiprofayili zesantya sesandi ngexesha langempela ngexesha lokufumana. Idatha icutshungulwe kusetyenziswa isoftware ye-PDS2000 (Reson-Thales) ngokwemigangatho ye-International Hydrographic Organisation (https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-44_5E.pdf) yokuhambahamba kunye nokulungisa amaza. Ukunciphisa ingxolo ngenxa yokuqaqamba kwezixhobo ngengozi kunye nokukhutshwa kwe-beam ekumgangatho ophantsi kwenziwe ngezixhobo zokuhlela ibhendi kunye nokususa i-spiking. Ukufunyanwa kwesantya sesandi okuqhubekayo kwenziwa sisikhululo se-keel esikufutshane ne-transducer ye-multi-beam kwaye sifumana kwaye sisebenzise iiprofayili zesantya sesandi ngexesha langempela kwikholamu yamanzi rhoqo emva kweeyure ezi-6-8 ukubonelela ngesantya sesandi ngexesha langempela kwi-beam efanelekileyo. Ukuqhuba. Lonke uluhlu lwedatha lumalunga ne-440 km2 (ubunzulu obuyi-0-1200 m). Olu lwazi lusetyenziselwe ukubonelela ngemodeli yomhlaba wedijithali enesisombululo esiphezulu (i-DTM) ephawulwa ngobukhulu beseli yegridi eyi-1 m. I-DTM yokugqibela (Umzobo 1a) yenziwe ngedatha yomhlaba (>0 m ngaphezu kolwandle) efunyenwe kubungakanani beseli yegridi eyi-20 m yi-Italian Geo-Military Institute.
Iprofayili yedatha ye-seismic ye-single-channel enesisombululo esiphezulu seekhilomitha ezingama-55, eqokelelwe ngexesha lohambo olukhuselekileyo lwaselwandle ngo-2007 nango-2014, igubungele ummandla omalunga neekhilomitha ezili-113 zesikwere, zombini kwi-R/V Urania. Iiprofayili zeMarisk (umz., iprofayili ye-seismic ye-L1, uMzobo 1b) zifunyenwe ngokusebenzisa inkqubo ye-boomer ye-IKB-Seistec. Iyunithi yokufumana iqulethe i-catamaran eyi-2.5 m apho umthombo kunye nommkeli zibekwe khona. Utyikityo lomthombo luqulathe incochoyi enye entle ebonakala kuluhlu lweefrikhwensi eziyi-1-10 kHz kwaye ivumela ukusombulula ii-reflectors ezahlulwe ngama-25 cm. Iiprofayili ze-seismic ezikhuselekileyo zifunyenwe kusetyenziswa umthombo we-seismic we-Geospark we-1.4 Kj multi-tip odibene nesoftware ye-Geospark (i-Geo Marine Survey System). Inkqubo iqulathe i-catamaran equlathe umthombo we-1-6.02 KHz ongena ukuya kuthi ga kwi-400 milliseconds kwi-sediment ethambileyo ngaphantsi kolwandle, enesisombululo esithe nkqo sethiyori se-30 cm.Zombini izixhobo zeSafe kunye neMarsik zifunyenwe ngesantya se-0.33 shots/sec ngesantya senqanawa <3 Kn. Idatha icutshungulwe yaze yavezwa kusetyenziswa isoftware yeGeosuite Allworks enendlela yokusebenza elandelayo: ukulungiswa kokwandiswa, ukuguqulwa kwekholamu yamanzi, ukucoca i-bandpass ye-2-6 KHz IIR, kunye ne-AGC.
Igesi evela kwi-fumarole engaphantsi kwamanzi iqokelelwe phantsi kolwandle kusetyenziswa ibhokisi yeplastiki exhotyiswe nge-diaphragm yerabha kwicala layo eliphezulu, ibekwe phezulu yi-ROV phezu komoya. Nje ukuba amaqamza omoya angene ebhokisini atshintshe ngokupheleleyo amanzi olwandle, i-ROV ibuyela kubunzulu be-1 m, kwaye umntywili udlulisela igesi eqokelelweyo nge-septum yerabha kwiiflaski ezimbini zeglasi ezingama-60 mL ezikhutshwe kwangaphambili ezixhotyiswe nge-Teflon stopcocks apho i-One yazaliswa yi-20 mL yesisombululo se-5N NaOH (iflaski yohlobo lweGegenbach). Iintlobo eziphambili zegesi ye-asidi (CO2 kunye ne-H2S) zinyibilika kwisisombululo se-alkaline, ngelixa iintlobo zegesi ezinyibilikayo kancinci (N2, Ar+O2, CO, H2, He, Ar, CH4 kunye nee-hydrocarbons ezikhanyayo) zigcinwa kwindawo yentloko yebhotile yesampulu. Iigesi ezinyibilikayo kancinci ezingaphiliyo zihlalutywe yi-gas chromatography (GC) kusetyenziswa iShimadzu 15A exhotyiswe ngekholamu yesihluzo se-5A molecular esinobude be-10 m kunye ne-thermal conductivity detector (TCD) 54. I-Argon kunye I-O2 ihlalutywe kusetyenziswa i-chromatograph yegesi yeThermo Focus exhotyiswe ngekholamu yesihluzo se-capillary molecular engama-30 m ubude kunye ne-TCD. I-Methane kunye ne-hydrocarbons ezikhanyayo zihlalutywe kusetyenziswa i-Shimadzu 14A gas chromatograph exhotyiswe ngekholamu yentsimbi engagqwaliyo engama-10 m ubude ezaliswe yi-Chromosorb PAW 80/100 mesh, egqunywe nge-23% SP 1700 kunye ne-flame ionization detector (FID). Isigaba solwelo sisetyenziselwe uhlalutyo lwe-1) CO2, njengoko, ixutywe nesisombululo se-0.5 N HCl (Metrohm Basic Titrino) kunye ne-2) H2S, njengoko, emva kwe-oxidation ene-5 mL H2O2 (33%), yi-ion chromatography (IC) (IC) (Wantong 761). Impazamo yohlalutyo lwe-titration, i-GC kunye nohlalutyo lwe-IC ingaphantsi kwe-5%. Emva kweenkqubo ezisemgangathweni zokukhupha kunye nokucoca imixube yegesi, i-13C/12C CO2 (echazwe njenge-δ13C-CO2% kunye ne-V-PDB) ihlalutywe kusetyenziswa I-Finningan Delta S mass spectrometer55,56. Imigangatho esetyenzisiweyo ukuqikelela ukuchaneka kwangaphandle yayiyiCarrara kunye neSan Vincenzo marble (yangaphakathi), iNBS18 kunye neNBS19 (yamazwe ngamazwe), ngelixa impazamo yohlalutyo kunye nokuphindaphinda yayiyi-±0.05% kunye ne-±0.1%, ngokwahlukeneyo.
Amaxabiso e-δ15N (avezwa njenge % vs. Air) kunye ne-40Ar/36Ar zichongiwe kusetyenziswa i-Agilent 6890 N gas chromatograph (GC) edityaniswe ne-Finnigan Delta plusXP continuous flow mass spectrometer. Impazamo yohlalutyo yile: δ15N±0.1%, 36Ar<1%, 40Ar<3%. Umlinganiselo we-He isotope (ovezwa njenge R/Ra, apho u-R engu-3He/4He ulinganiswe kwisampuli kwaye u-Ra umlinganiselo ofanayo emoyeni: 1.39 × 10−6)57 uchongiwe kwilebhu ye-INGV-Palermo (e-Itali) 3He, 4He kunye no-20Ne bachongiwe kusetyenziswa i-dual collector mass spectrometer (i-Helix SFT-GVI)58 emva kokwahlulwa kwe-He kunye ne-Ne. Impazamo yohlalutyo ≤ 0.3%.Izithuba eziqhelekileyo ze-He kunye ne-Ne zi-<10-14 kunye <10-16 mol, ngokwahlukeneyo.
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