Iingenelo zingafunyanwa ngokufumana ulwazi ngomaleko omnye wesakhiwo sengqolowa olawula indlela esebenza ngayo intsimbi engagqwali. Getty Images
Ukukhethwa kwentsimbi engagqwaliyo kunye nee-aluminium alloys kudla ngokujongwa ngamandla, ukuguquguquka, ukunwebeka, kunye nobunzima. Ezi mpawu zibonisa indlela iibhloko zokwakha zesinyithi ezisabela ngayo kwimithwalo esetyenzisiweyo. Ziluphawu olusebenzayo lokulawula imida yezinto ezikrwada; oko kukuthi, ukuba ziya kugoba kangakanani ngaphambi kokuba ziqhekeke. Izinto ezikrwada kufuneka zikwazi ukumelana nenkqubo yokubumba ngaphandle kokuqhekeka.
Uvavanyo lokuxinana nokuqina olutshabalalisayo yindlela ethembekileyo nengabizi kakhulu yokufumanisa iimpawu zoomatshini. Nangona kunjalo, ezi mvavanyo azisoloko zithembekile xa ubukhulu bezinto eziluhlaza buqala ukunciphisa ubungakanani besampulu yovavanyo. Uvavanyo lokuxinana kweemveliso zesinyithi esisicaba luseluncedo, kodwa iingenelo zinokufunyanwa ngokujonga nzulu umaleko omnye wesakhiwo sengqolowa olawula indlela esebenza ngayo imishini.
Iintsimbi zenziwe ngothotho lweekristale ezincinci ezibizwa ngokuba ziingqolowa. Zisasazwa ngokungacwangciswanga kuyo yonke intsimbi. Iiathom zezinto ezidibanisayo, ezifana nentsimbi, ichromium, i-nickel, i-manganese, i-silicon, ikhabhoni, i-nitrogen, i-phosphorus kunye ne-sulfur kwiintsimbi ezingenasici ze-austenitic, ziyinxalenye yengqolowa enye. Ezi athom zenza isisombululo esiqinileyo see-ion zesinyithi, ezibotshelelwe kwi-lattice yekristale ngee-electron zazo ezabelwana ngazo.
Ukwakheka kweekhemikhali ze-alloy kumisela ulungelelwaniso olukhethwayo lwe-athomu kwiinkozo, olwaziwa ngokuba yi-crystal structure. Iinxalenye ezifanayo zesinyithi ezinesakhiwo se-crystal esiphindaphindayo zenza i-grain enye okanye ezingaphezulu ezibizwa ngokuba zii-phases. Iipropati zoomatshini ze-alloy zisebenza kwisakhiwo se-crystal kwi-alloy. Oku kuyafana nangobungakanani kunye nolungelelwaniso lweenkozo zesigaba ngasinye.
Uninzi lwabantu luqhelene nezigaba zamanzi. Xa amanzi olwelo eqanda, aba ngumkhenkce oqinileyo. Nangona kunjalo, xa kufikwa kwisinyithi, akukho sigaba sinye esiqinileyo. Iintsapho ezithile zealloy zibizwa ngamagama azo. Phakathi kweentsimbi ezingenasici, ii-austenitic 300 series alloys ziquka ikakhulu i-austenite xa zifakwe kwi-anneal. Nangona kunjalo, ii-400 series alloys ziquka i-ferrite kwi-430 stainless steel okanye i-martensite kwi-410 kunye ne-420 stainless steel alloys.
Kunjalo nakwii-alloys ze-titanium. Igama leqela ngalinye le-alloy libonisa isigaba sazo esiphezulu kubushushu begumbi - i-alpha, i-beta okanye umxube wazo zombini. Kukho ii-alloys ze-alpha, i-near-alpha, i-alpha-beta, i-beta kunye ne-near-beta.
Xa isinyithi esilulwelo siqina, amasuntswana aqinileyo esigaba esikhethwa yi-thermodynamically aya kuhla apho uxinzelelo, ubushushu kunye nokwakheka kweekhemikhali kuvumela khona. Oku kudla ngokwenzeka kwiindawo zokudibana, njengeekristale zomkhenkce kumphezulu wechibi elifudumeleyo ngemini ebandayo. Xa iinkozo zikhula, isakhiwo sekristale sikhula kwicala elinye de kudibane nesinye ingqolowa. Imida yeenkozo yakheka kwiindawo zokudibana kweelattices ezingahambelaniyo ngenxa yeendlela ezahlukeneyo zezakhiwo zekristale. Khawucinge ngokubeka iqela leetyhubhu zikaRubik zobukhulu obahlukeneyo ebhokisini. Ityhubhu nganye inolungiselelo lwegridi yesikwere, kodwa zonke ziya kuhlelwa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo ezingacwangciswanga. Umsebenzi wesinyithi oqinisiweyo ngokupheleleyo uqulathe uthotho lweenkozo ezibonakala zicwangciswe ngokungacwangciswanga.
Nanini na xa kukho ingqolowa, kunokwenzeka ukuba kubekho iziphene zemigca. Ezi ziphene ziindawo ezingekhoyo zesakhiwo sekristale esibizwa ngokuba yi-dislocations. Ezi ziphene kunye nokuhamba kwazo okulandelayo kuyo yonke ingqolowa nangaphaya kwemida yengqolowa zibalulekile ekuguquguqukeni kwesinyithi.
Inxalenye enqamlezileyo yesixhobo somsebenzi iyafakelwa, igutywe, ipholishwe kwaye ikrolwe ukuze kubonwe isakhiwo seenkozo. Xa zifana kwaye zilingana, izakhiwo ezincinci ezibonwa kwi-microscope ebonakalayo zifana nephazili yejigsaw. Enyanisweni, iinkozo zinobukhulu obuthathu, kwaye icandelo elinqamlezileyo lenkozo nganye liya kwahluka ngokuxhomekeke kwindlela ebekwe ngayo icandelo elinqamlezileyo lesixhobo somsebenzi.
Xa isakhiwo sekristale sizaliswe ziiathom zaso zonke, akukho ndawo yokuhamba ngaphandle kokunwebeka kweebhondi zeathom.
Xa ususa isiqingatha somqolo weeathomu, udala ithuba lokuba omnye umqolo weeathomu ungene kuloo ndawo, ushukumise ngempumelelo ukudilika. Xa amandla esetyenziswa kwindawo yokusebenza, intshukumo edibeneyo yokudilika kwisakhiwo se-microstructure iyenza ikwazi ukugoba, ukolula okanye ukucinezela ngaphandle kokuqhekeka okanye ukuqhekeka.
Xa amandla esebenza kwi-alloy yesinyithi, inkqubo inyusa amandla. Ukuba kongezwa amandla aneleyo okubangela ukuguqulwa kweplastiki, i-lattice iyaguquguquka kwaye kuvele ukuguquguquka okutsha. Kubonakala kusengqiqweni ukuba oku kufanele kwandise ukuguquguquka, njengoko kukhulula indawo engakumbi kwaye ngaloo ndlela kudala amandla okunyakaza okungaphezulu kokuguquguquka. Nangona kunjalo, xa ukuguquguquka kungqubana, zinokulungisana.
Njengoko inani kunye noxinzelelo lokusasazeka kweendawo ezahlukeneyo lusanda, ukusasazeka kweendawo ezininzi kuyadityaniswa, nto leyo enciphisa ukuxinana. Ekugqibeleni kubonakala ukuba ukusasazeka okuninzi kangangokuba ukwakheka kobandayo akusakwazi ukwenzeka. Ekubeni ukusasazeka kweendawo ezikhoyo kungasakwazi ukuhamba, iibhondi zeathomu kwilattice ziyanwebeka zide ziqhekeke okanye ziqhekeke. Yiyo loo nto ii-alloys zesinyithi zisebenza nzima, kwaye kutheni kukho umda kubungakanani bokuguqulwa kweplastiki isinyithi esinokukumelana nayo ngaphambi kokuba siqhekeke.
Iinkozo zikwadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuqhobosheleni. Ukuqhoboshela izinto eziqinisiweyo ngokuyintloko kubuyisela isakhiwo sazo kwakhona ngaloo ndlela kubuyisela ukuqina kwazo. Ngexesha lenkqubo yokuqhoboshela, iinkozo ziguqulwa ngamanyathelo amathathu:
Khawucinge ngomntu ohamba kwinqwelo-mafutha kaloliwe ezele ngabantu. Izihlwele zinokucinezelwa kuphela ngokushiya izithuba phakathi kwemigca, njengokusuka kwindawo ethile kwilathisi. Njengoko babeqhubeka, abantu abasemva kwabo bazalisa indawo ababeyishiyile, ngelixa bedala indawo entsha ngaphambili. Nje ukuba bafike kwelinye icala lenqwelo-mafutha, indlela abakhweli abacwangciswa ngayo iyatshintsha. Ukuba abantu abaninzi bazama ukudlula ngaxeshanye, abakhweli abazama ukwenza indawo yokuhamba kwabo baya kungqubana baze babethe iindonga zeemoto zikaloliwe, bebambe wonke umntu endaweni yakhe. Okukhona kuvela ukusuka kwindawo ethile, kokukhona kuba nzima kubo ukuhamba ngaxeshanye.
Kubalulekile ukuqonda inqanaba elincinci lokuguquka elifunekayo ukuze kuqaliswe ukwenziwa kwakhona kwekristale. Nangona kunjalo, ukuba isinyithi asinawo amandla aneleyo okuguquka ngaphambi kokuba sifudumale, ukwenziwa kwakhona kwekristale akuyi kwenzeka kwaye iinkozo ziya kuqhubeka zikhula ngaphaya kobukhulu bazo bokuqala.
Iimpawu zoomatshini zinokulungiswa ngokulawula ukukhula kweenkozo. Umda weenkozo ngokuyintloko ludonga lokuphambuka. Zithintela intshukumo.
Ukuba ukukhula kweenkozo kuthintelwe, inani elikhulu leenkozo ezincinci liya kuveliswa. Ezi nkozo zincinci zithathwa njengezincinci ngokwesakhiwo seenkozo. Imida engaphezulu yeenkozo ithetha ukuba akukho ntshukumo ingako yokuphuma kunye namandla aphezulu.
Ukuba ukukhula kweenkozo akuthintelwanga, ulwakhiwo lweenkozo luyaqina, iinkozo zinkulu, imida incinci, kwaye amandla aphantsi.
Ubungakanani beenkozo budla ngokubizwa ngokuba linani elingenayunithi, phakathi kwe-5 ne-15. Eli linani elihambelanayo kwaye linxulumene nobubanzi obuqhelekileyo beenkozo. Okukhona inani liphezulu, kokukhona ubuncinci beenkozo.
I-ASTM E112 ichaza iindlela zokulinganisa nokuvavanya ubungakanani bengqolowa. Ibandakanya ukubala ubungakanani bengqolowa kwindawo ethile. Oku kudla ngokwenziwa ngokusika icandelo elinqamlezileyo lezinto ezikrwada, ukuzigaya nokuzicola, uze uzikrole nge-asidi ukuze kuvele amasuntswana. Ukubala kwenziwa phantsi kwe-microscope, kwaye ukukhulisa kuvumela ukuba kuthathwe iisampulu ezaneleyo zeengqolowa. Ukwabela amanani obungakanani bengqolowa ye-ASTM kubonisa inqanaba elifanelekileyo lokufana kwimilo kunye nobubanzi bengqolowa. Kunokuba luncedo nokunciphisa umahluko kubungakanani bengqolowa ukuya kumanqaku amabini okanye amathathu ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza okulinganayo kuyo yonke indawo yokusebenza.
Kwimeko yokuqina komsebenzi, amandla kunye nokuguquguquka kunobudlelwane obuchaseneyo. Ubudlelwane phakathi kobukhulu beenkozo ze-ASTM kunye namandla buhlala bubuhle kwaye buqinile, ngokubanzi ubude buhambelana nobukhulu beenkozo ze-ASTM. Nangona kunjalo, ukukhula okugqithisileyo kweenkozo kunokubangela ukuba izinto "ezithambileyo" zingasasebenzi ziqine ngokufanelekileyo.
Ubungakanani beenkozo budla ngokubizwa ngokuba linani elingenayunithi, phakathi kwe-5 ne-15. Eli lixabiso elihambelanayo kwaye linxulumene nobubanzi obuqhelekileyo beenkozo. Okukhona ixabiso lobungakanani beenkozo ze-ASTM liphezulu, kokukhona iinkozo zininzi kwindawo nganye.
Ubungakanani bengqolowa yezinto ezifakwe kwi-anneal buyahluka ngokwexesha, ubushushu kunye nesantya sokuphola. Ukuncitshiswa kudla ngokwenziwa phakathi kobushushu bokuphinda kusetyenziswe i-crystallization kunye nendawo yokunyibilika kwe-alloy. Uluhlu lobushushu olucetyiswayo lokuncitshiswa kwe-austenitic stainless steel alloy 301 luphakathi kwe-1,900 kunye ne-2,050 degrees Fahrenheit. Iya kuqala ukunyibilika malunga ne-2,550 degrees Fahrenheit. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, i-titanium ye-grade 1 ecocekileyo yorhwebo kufuneka incitshiswe kwi-1,292 degrees Fahrenheit kwaye incibilike malunga ne-3,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
Ngexesha lokutsalwa kwe-annealing, iinkqubo zokubuyisela kunye nokuphinda kutsalwe i-crystallization ziyakhuphisana de iinkozo ezitshalwe kwakhona zidle zonke iinkozo eziguqukileyo. Izinga lokuphinda kutsalwe liyahluka ngokweqondo lobushushu. Nje ukuba kugqitywe ukuphinda kutsalwe, ukukhula kweenkozo kuthatha indawo. I-workpiece yentsimbi engagqwaliyo engama-301 etshalwe kwi-1,900°F kangangeyure enye iya kuba nesakhiwo sengqolowa esicolekileyo kune-workpiece efanayo etshalwe kwi-2,000°F ngexesha elinye.
Ukuba izinto azigcinwanga kuluhlu olufanelekileyo lokutsalela ixesha elide, ulwakhiwo oluvelayo lunokuba yindibaniselwano yeenkozo ezindala nezintsha. Ukuba iipropati ezifanayo ziyafuneka kuyo yonke intsimbi, inkqubo yokutsalela kufuneka ijolise ekufezekiseni ulwakhiwo lweenkozo olulinganayo. Ukufana kuthetha ukuba zonke iinkozo zilingana ngobukhulu, kwaye ukufana kuthetha ukuba zilingana nobukhulu.
Ukuze ufumane isakhiwo esilinganayo nesilinganayo, isiqwenga ngasinye somsebenzi kufuneka sibekwe kubushushu obufanayo ixesha elifanayo kwaye siphole ngesantya esifanayo. Oku akulula rhoqo okanye akunakwenzeka nge-batch annealing, ngoko ke kubalulekile ukulinda ubuncinane de isiqwenga sonke sigcwale kubushushu obufanelekileyo ngaphambi kokubala ixesha lokusila. Amaxesha okusila amade kunye namaqondo obushushu aphezulu kuya kubangela isakhiwo sengqolowa esiqinileyo/izinto ezithambileyo kunye nokunye.
Ukuba ubungakanani bengqolowa kunye namandla ayo anxulumene, kwaye amandla ayo ayaziwa, kutheni kufuneka ubale iinkozo, akunjalo? Zonke iimvavanyo ezitshabalalisayo ziyahluka. Uvavanyo lokuxinana, ingakumbi kubukhulu obuphantsi, luxhomekeke kakhulu ekulungisweni kwesampulu. Iziphumo zamandla okuxinana ezingameli iipropati zezinto ezibonakalayo zinokuphelelwa lixesha.
Ukuba iimpawu azifani kuyo yonke into yokusebenza, ukuthatha isampuli yovavanyo oluqinileyo okanye isampuli kwelinye icala kusenokungayichazi yonke into. Ukulungiselela kunye nokuvavanya isampuli nako kunokuthatha ixesha. Zingaphi iimvavanyo ezinokwenzeka kwisinyithi esithile, kwaye zingaphi iindlela ezinokwenzeka? Ukuvavanya isakhiwo sengqolowa kukhuseleko olongezelelweyo kwizimanga.
I-Anisotropic, i-isotropic. I-Anisotropy ibhekisa kwicala leempawu zoomatshini. Ukongeza kumandla, i-anisotropy inokuqondwa ngcono ngokuhlola isakhiwo seenkozo.
Ulwakhiwo lweenkozo ezifanayo nezilinganayo kufuneka zibe yi-isotropic, oko kuthetha ukuba zineempawu ezifanayo kuzo zonke iindlela. I-Isotropy ibaluleke kakhulu kwiinkqubo zokuzoba ezinzulu apho ukugxila kubaluleke kakhulu. Xa isithuba sitsalwa kwi-mold, izinto ze-anisotropic aziyi kuhamba ngokufanayo, nto leyo enokukhokelela kwisiphene esibizwa ngokuba yi-earing. I-earring yenzeka apho inxalenye ephezulu yekomityi yenza i-silhouette egobileyo. Ukuhlola ulwakhiwo lweenkozo kunokubonisa indawo yokungafani kwindawo yokusebenza kwaye kuncede ekuchongeni unobangela.
Ukuqhoboshela ngokufanelekileyo kubalulekile ekufezekiseni i-isotropy, kodwa kubalulekile nokuqonda ubungakanani bokuqhekeka ngaphambi kokuba kuqhoboshelwe. Njengoko izinto ziqhekeka ngokweplastiki, iinkozo ziqala ukuqhekeka. Kwimeko yokuqengqeleka okubandayo, kuguqula ubukhulu bube bubude, iinkozo ziya kwanda kwicala lokuqengqeleka. Njengoko umlinganiselo womphezulu wengqolowa utshintsha, kunjalo ne-isotropy kunye neempawu zoomatshini ngokubanzi. Kwimeko yezinto zokusebenza eziqhekeka kakhulu, ukujongwa okuthile kunokugcinwa nasemva kokuqhoboshelwa. Oku kuphumela kwi-anisotropy. Kwizinto ezitsalwe nzulu, ngamanye amaxesha kuyimfuneko ukunciphisa ubungakanani bokuqhekeka ngaphambi kokuba kuqhoboshelwe ekugqibeleni ukuze kuthintelwe ukuguguleka.
Ixolo leorenji. Ukucocwa akukuphela kwesiphene sokutsala nzulu esinxulunyaniswa nodaka. Ixolo leorenji lenzeka xa kutsalwa izinto eziluhlaza ezineenxalenye ezirhabaxa kakhulu. Ingqolowa nganye iyatshintsha ngokuzimeleyo kwaye ngenxa yendlela ejongeka ngayo ikristale. Umahluko ekuguqukeni phakathi kweenkozo ezikufutshane uphumela kwimbonakalo efana nexolo leorenji. Ubume bubume obuqhekekileyo obubonakala phezu kodonga lwekomityi.
Njengama-pixels kwisikrini seTV, anesakhiwo esincinci, umahluko phakathi kwengqolowa nganye awuyi kuphawuleka kangako, nto leyo eyandisa isisombululo. Ukuchaza iipropati zoomatshini kuphela kusenokunganeli ukuqinisekisa ubungakanani bengqolowa obuhle ngokwaneleyo ukuthintela isiphumo sexolo le-orenji. Xa umahluko wobukhulu bento yokusebenza ungaphantsi kwe-10 ubukhulu bengqolowa, iipropati zeenkozo nganye ziya kuqhuba indlela yokwenza. Ayiguquguquki ngokulinganayo kwiinkozo ezininzi, kodwa ibonisa ubungakanani obuthile kunye nolwalathiso lwengqolowa nganye. Oku kunokubonwa kwisiphumo sexolo le-orenji kwiindonga zeekomityi ezitsaliweyo.
Kwi-ASTM grain size eyi-8, ububanzi be-grain buyi-885 µin. Oku kuthetha ukuba naluphi na unciphiso lobukhulu obuyi-0.00885 intshi okanye ngaphantsi lunokuchaphazeleka yile microforming effect.
Nangona iinkozo ezirhabaxa zinokubangela iingxaki zokuzoba ezinzulu, ngamanye amaxesha ziyacetyiswa ukuba ziprintwe. Ukustampa yinkqubo yokuguqulwa apho ingenanto icinezelwa khona ukuze inike i-topography yomphezulu oyifunayo, njengekota yemilo yobuso bukaGeorge Washington. Ngokungafaniyo nomzobo wocingo, ukustampa kudla ngokungabandakanyi ukuhamba kwezinto ezininzi, kodwa kufuna amandla amaninzi, anokonakalisa nje umphezulu wento engenanto.
Ngenxa yesi sizathu, ukunciphisa uxinzelelo lokuhamba komphezulu ngokusebenzisa isakhiwo seenkozo eziqinileyo kunokunceda ukunciphisa amandla afunekayo ukuze kuzaliswe isikhunta ngokufanelekileyo. Oku kuyinyani ngakumbi kwi-free-die imprinting, apho ukusasazeka kweenkozo kumphezulu kunokuhamba ngokukhululekileyo, endaweni yokuba ziqokelelene kwimida yeenkozo.
Iindlela ezixutyushwa apha ziindlela ezibanzi ezinokuthi zingasebenzi kumacandelo athile. Nangona kunjalo, zigxininise iingenelo zokulinganisa nokulinganisa ubungakanani bengqolowa yezinto eziluhlaza xa kuyilo lwamacandelo amatsha ukuze kuthintelwe iziphene eziqhelekileyo kunye nokuphucula iiparameter zokubumba.
Abavelisi boomatshini bokunyathela isinyithi ngokuchanekileyo kunye nemisebenzi yokuzoba nzulu kwisinyithi ukwenza iindawo zabo baya kusebenzisana kakuhle neengcali zesinyithi kwii-re-roller ezinobuchule bobuchwephesha ezinokubanceda balungise izixhobo ukuya kwinqanaba lengqolowa. Xa iingcali zesinyithi kunye nezobunjineli kumacala omabini obudlelwane zidityaniswe kwiqela elinye, kunokuba nefuthe eliguqulayo kwaye kuvelise iziphumo ezilungileyo ngakumbi.
I-STAMPING Journal yeyona phephandaba kuphela elizinikele ekuncedeni iimfuno zemarike yokunyathela ngesinyithi. Ukusukela ngo-1989, le mpapasho ibigubungela ubuchwepheshe obuphambili, iindlela zoshishino, iindlela ezilungileyo kunye neendaba zokunceda iingcali zokunyathela ziqhube ishishini lazo ngokufanelekileyo.
Ngoku ngokufikelela ngokupheleleyo kuhlelo lwedijithali lwe-FABRICATOR, ukufikelela lula kwizixhobo ezixabisekileyo zoshishino.
Uhlelo lwedijithali lweThe Tube & Pipe Journal ngoku lufikeleleka ngokupheleleyo, nto leyo enika ukufikelela lula kwizixhobo ezixabisekileyo zoshishino.
Yonwabela ukufikelela ngokupheleleyo kuhlelo lwedijithali lwe-STAMPING Journal, olubonelela ngenkqubela phambili yetekhnoloji yamva nje, iindlela ezilungileyo kunye neendaba zoshishino kwimarike yokunyathela isinyithi.
Ngoku ngokufikelela ngokupheleleyo kuhlelo lwedijithali lwe-The Fabricator en Español, ukufikelela lula kwizixhobo ezixabisekileyo zoshishino.