Ka taea te whiwhi hua mā te mārama ki tētahi paparanga o te hanganga kōhatu e whakahaere ana i te whanonga ā-pūkaha o te maitai kore waikura. Getty Images
Ko te kōwhiringa o te kowiri tira me te konumohe konumohe e aro nui ana ki te kaha, te ngāwari, te roa, me te pakeke. E whakaatu ana ēnei āhuatanga i te urupare a ngā poraka hanga o te konganuku ki ngā kawenga e pā ana. He tohu whai hua ēnei mō te whakahaere i ngā here o te rauemi mata; arā, te nui o tōna piko i mua i te pakaru. Me kaha te rauemi mata ki te tu atu i te tukanga hanga me te kore e pakaru.
He tikanga pono, he tikanga utu-pai hoki te whakamātautau kume me te pakeke whakangaro mō te whakatau i ngā āhuatanga ā-pūkaha. Heoi, kāore i te tino pono ēnei whakamātautau ina tīmata te matotoru o te rauemi mata ki te whakawhāiti i te rahi o te tauira whakamātautau. He whai hua tonu te whakamātautau kume o ngā hua whakarewa papatahi, engari ka taea te whiwhi painga mā te titiro hohonu atu ki tētahi paparanga o te hanganga witi e whakahaere ana i tana whanonga ā-pūkaha.
He mea hanga ngā konganuku i tētahi raupapa tioata moroiti e kiia nei ko ngā kakano. Ka tohatoha matapōkeretia ēnei puta noa i te konganuku. Ko ngā ngota o ngā huānga whakarewa, pērā i te rino, te chromium, te nickel, te manganese, te silicon, te waro, te hauota, te phosphorus me te whanariki i roto i ngā maitai kore waikura austenitic, he wāhanga o tētahi kakano kotahi. Ka hangaia e ēnei ngota he otinga totoka o ngā katote konganuku, ka herea ki roto i te whatunga tioata mā roto i ō rātou irahiko tiritahi.
Ko te hanganga matū o te koranu e whakatau ana i te whakaritenga pai o ngā ngota i roto i ngā kirikiri, e mōhiotia ana ko te hanganga tioata. Ko ngā wāhanga ōrite o te konganuku kei roto he hanganga tioata auau ka hanga i tētahi, neke atu rānei o ngā kirikiri e kiia nei ko ngā āhuahanga. Ko ngā āhuatanga hangarau o te koranu he mahi a te hanganga tioata i roto i te koranu. Pērā anō hoki mō te rahi me te whakaritenga o ngā kirikiri o ia āhuahanga.
E mōhio ana te nuinga o te tangata ki ngā wāhanga o te wai. Ina tio te wai wai, ka huri hei hukapapa totoka. Heoi, ina tae ki ngā konganuku, kāore i te kotahi noa te wāhanga totoka. Ko ētahi whānau koranu ka tapaina i muri i ō rātou wāhanga. I roto i ngā maitai kore waikura, ko ngā koranu austenitic raupapa 300 he mea hanga nui ki te austenite ina whakamahanatia. Heoi, ko ngā koranu raupapa 400 he mea hanga ki te ferrite i roto i te maitai kore waikura 430, te martensite rānei i roto i ngā koranu maitai kore waikura 410 me te 420.
Pērā anō hoki mō ngā koranu titanium. Ko te ingoa o ia rōpū koranu e tohu ana i tō rātou wāhanga matua i te pāmahana rūma – alpha, beta, he ranunga rānei o ngā mea e rua. He alpha, tata-alpha, alpha-beta, beta me te tata-beta ngā koranu.
Ina totoka te whakarewa wai, ka taupatupatu ngā matūriki totoka o te wāhanga pai rawa atu mō te wera i te wāhi e āhei ai te pēhanga, te pāmahana me te hanganga matū. Ka tupu tēnei i ngā atanga, pērā i ngā tioata hukapapa i runga i te mata o te roto mahana i te rā makariri. Ina pūmau ngā kakano, ka tipu te hanganga tioata i tētahi taha tae noa ki te tūtaki ki tētahi atu kakano. Ka hangaia ngā rohe kakano i ngā whakawhiti o ngā whatunga kāore i te ōrite nā te rerekētanga o ngā aronga o ngā hanganga tioata. Whakaarohia te whakatakoto i tētahi paihere o ngā poraka Rubik o ngā rahi rerekē ki roto i tētahi pouaka. He whakaritenga matawhā tapawhā tō ia poraka, engari ka whakaritea katoatia ki ngā ahunga matapōkere rerekē. Ko tētahi mahi whakarewa kua totoka katoa he raupapa o ngā kakano e āhua matapōkere ana te aronga.
I ngā wā katoa e hangaia ana he kakano, tera pea ka puta he hapa rārangi. Ko ēnei hapa he wāhanga ngaro o te hanganga karaihe e kiia nei ko ngā whakakorikori. Ko ēnei whakakorikori me tā rātou nekehanga i muri mai puta noa i te kakano me te whakawhiti i ngā rohe kakano he mea nui ki te ngāwari o te whakarewa.
Ka whakairihia he wāhanga whakawhiti o te mea mahi, ka hurihia, ka orohia, ka whakairohia kia kitea ai te hanganga o te kōhao. Ina ōrite, ka ōrite te āhua o ngā hanganga moroiti e kitea ana i runga i te karuārai whatu, he rite ki te panga panga. Inaa, he toru-ahu ngā kōhao, ā, ka rerekē te wāhanga whakawhiti o ia kōhao i runga i te takotoranga o te wāhanga whakawhiti o te mea mahi.
Ina kī tonu te hanganga tioata i ōna ngota katoa, kāore he wāhi mō te nekehanga i tua atu i te totoro o ngā hononga ngota.
Ina tangohia e koe te haurua o te rarangi ngota, ka hangaia he whai wāhitanga mō tētahi atu rarangi ngota ki te paheke ki taua tūranga, ka nekehia te nekehanga. Ina pāngia te mahi e te kaha, mā te nekehanga whakakotahi o ngā nekehanga i roto i te hanganga moroiti ka taea e ia te piko, te totoro, te pēhi rānei me te kore e whati, e whati rānei.
Ina pā te kaha ki tētahi koranu whakarewa, ka whakanuia e te pūnaha te pūngao. Mēnā ka tāpirihia he nui te pūngao hei whakaputa i te āhua kirihou, ka rerekē te āhua o te whatunga, ā, ka puta he nekehanga hou. He mea tika kia whakanuia e tēnei te ngāwari, nā te mea ka wātea ake he wāhi nui ake, ā, ka puta ake te kaha mō te nekehanga nekehanga nui ake. Heoi, ina tukinga ngā nekehanga, ka taea e rāua te whakatika tetahi i tetahi.
I te piki haere o te maha me te kukū o ngā nekehanga, ka nui haere ngā nekehanga e piri tahi ana, ka whakaiti i te ngāwari. I te mutunga, ka puta he maha ngā nekehanga, ā, kāore e taea te hanga matao. Nā te mea kāore e taea e ngā nekehanga piri o nāianei te neke, ka totoro ngā hononga ngota i roto i te whatunga kia pakaru, kia whati rānei. Koinei te take e whakapakeke ai ngā koranu whakarewa, ā, he rohe kei reira te nui o te whakarerekētanga kirihou ka taea e te whakarewa te tu atu i mua i te pakaru.
He mea nui anō hoki te mahi a te witi i roto i te whakamahana. Mā te whakamahana i tētahi rauemi kua whakapakeketia ka tautuhi anō i te hanganga moroiti, ā, ka whakahokia mai te ngāwari. I roto i te tukanga whakamahana, ka hurihia ngā witi i roto i ngā taahiraa e toru:
Whakaarohia tētahi tangata e hikoi ana i roto i tētahi tereina kī tonu i te tangata. Ka taea anake te whakawhāiti i ngā mano mā te waiho i ngā āputa i waenganui i ngā rarangi, pērā i ngā pakaru i roto i tētahi whatunga. I a rātou e haere whakamua ana, ka whakakīia e ngā tāngata i muri i a rātou te āputa i mahue i a rātou, i a rātou e hanga ana i tētahi wāhi hou ki mua. Kia tae atu rātou ki tērā pito o te tereina, ka rerekē te whakaritenga o ngā pāhihi. Ki te nui rawa ngā tāngata e ngana ana ki te haere i te wā kotahi, ka tukinga ngā pāhihi e ngana ana ki te hanga wāhi mō ā rātou nekehanga tetahi ki tetahi, ka pā ki ngā pakitara o ngā tereina, ka piri te katoa ki te wāhi. Ko te nui ake o ngā pakaru e puta mai ana, ko te uaua ake mō rātou te neke i te wā kotahi.
He mea nui kia mārama ki te taumata iti rawa o te whakarerekētanga e hiahiatia ana hei whakaoho i te hangarua. Heoi, ki te kore e ranea te kaha whakarerekētanga o te konganuku i mua i te whakamahanatanga, e kore te hangarua e puta, ā, ka tipu haere tonu ngā kōhao ki tua atu i tō rātou rahi taketake.
Ka taea te whakatikatika i ngā āhuatanga ā-pūkaha mā te whakahaere i te tipu o te witi. Ko te rohe witi he taiepa o ngā nekehanga. Ka ārai i te nekehanga.
Ki te whakawhāitihia te tipu o te witi, ka nui ake te maha o ngā witi iti ka puta. E kiia ana ēnei witi iti he angiangi ake te hanganga o te witi. Ko te nui ake o ngā rohe witi he iti ake te nekehanga o te wiri, ā, he kaha ake.
Ki te kore e whakawhāitihia te tupu o te witi, ka pakari haere te hanganga o te witi, ka nui ake ngā witi, ka iti ake ngā rohe, ā, ka iti iho te kaha.
E kiia ana te rahi o te kōpura he tau kore-wae, i waenga i te 5 me te 15. He ōwehenga whanaunga tēnei, ā, e pā ana ki te whānui toharite o te kōpura. Ka teitei ake te tau, ka angiangi ake te matotoru.
Kei roto i te ASTM E112 ngā tikanga mō te ine me te aromatawai i te rahi o te witi. Ko te tatau i te nui o te witi i roto i tētahi wāhi kua whakaritea. Ko te tikanga o tēnei mahi he tapahi i tētahi wāhanga whakawhiti o te rauemi mata, he huri me te whakakanapa, kātahi ka whakairohia ki te waikawa hei whakaatu i ngā matūriki. Ka mahia te tatau i raro i te karuārai, ā, mā te whakanui ka taea te tango tauira tika o ngā witi. Mā te tohu i ngā tau rahi o te witi ASTM e tohu he taumata ōrite o te āhua me te whānui o te witi. Tērā pea he pai ki te whakawhāiti i te rerekētanga o te rahi o te witi ki te rua, ki te toru rānei ngā pūwāhi hei whakarite i te mahi ōrite puta noa i te mea mahi.
Mō te whakapakeketanga mahi, he hononga whakahurihuri tō te kaha me te ngāwari. Ko te whanaungatanga i waenga i te rahi o te kōhao ASTM me te kaha he pai, he kaha hoki, ko te tikanga he hononga whakahurihuri te roa ki te rahi o te kōhao ASTM. Heoi, mā te tupu nui o te kōhao ka kore e whakapakeketia ngā rauemi "ngāwari mate".
E kiia ana te rahi o te kōpura he tau kore-wae, i waenga i te 5 me te 15. He ōwehenga whanaunga tēnei, ā, e pā ana ki te whānui toharite o te kōpura. Ko te teitei ake o te uara rahi o te kōpura ASTM, ko te nui ake o ngā kōpura mō ia horahanga wae.
Ka rerekē te rahi o te kōpura o te rauemi kua whakamahanahia i runga i te wā, te pāmahana me te tere whakamatao. Ko te whakamahana i te nuinga o te wā ka mahia i waenga i te pāmahana whakahou me te pūwāhi rewa o te koranu. Ko te awhe pāmahana whakamahana e taunakitia ana mō te koranu maitai kore waikura austenitic 301 kei waenga i te 1,900 me te 2,050 nekehanga Fahrenheit. Ka tīmata te rewa i te 2,550 nekehanga Fahrenheit. He rerekē, ko te titanium parakore o te tau 1 arumoni me whakamahana i te 1,292 nekehanga Fahrenheit me te rewa i te 3,000 nekehanga Fahrenheit.
I te wā e whakamahana ana, ka whakataetae ngā tukanga whakaora me te whakamahana anō tetahi ki tetahi tae noa ki te paunga o ngā witi kua whakamahana anō i ngā witi kua pirau katoa. Ka rerekē te tere whakamahana anō i runga i te pāmahana. Kia oti te whakamahana anō, ka tīmata te tipu o te witi. Ko te mea mahi maitai kore waikura 301 e whakamahanahia ana i te 1,900°F mō te haora kotahi ka pai ake te hanganga witi i te mea mahi kotahi e whakamahanahia ana i te 2,000°F mō te wā kotahi.
Ki te kore te rauemi e puritia i roto i te awhe whakamahana tika mō te wā roa, ko te hanganga ka puta he huinga o ngā kakano tawhito me ngā kakano hou. Ki te hiahiatia he āhuatanga ōrite puta noa i te konganuku, me whai te tukanga whakamahana kia tutuki he hanganga kakano ōrite, he ōrite. Ko te tikanga o te ōrite he rite te rahi o ngā kakano katoa, ā, ko te tikanga o te ōrite he rite tonu te āhua.
Hei whiwhi i tētahi hanganga moroiti ōrite, ōrite hoki, me whakaatu ia mea mahi ki te nui o te wera ōrite mō te wā ōrite, ā, me whakamatao hoki i te tere ōrite. Ehara tēnei i te mea ngāwari, i te mea taea rānei i ngā wā katoa me te whakamahana puranga, nō reira he mea nui kia tatari kia mākū te mea mahi katoa i te pāmahana tika i mua i te tatau i te wā rumaki. Mā te roa o te wā rumaki me te teitei ake o te pāmahana ka hua ake he hanganga kakano matotoru/he rauemi ngohengohe, ā, ko te ritenga kē.
Mena he hononga te rahi me te kaha o te witi, ā, e mōhiotia ana te kaha, he aha ai te tatau i ngā witi, tika? He rerekētanga ngā whakamātautau whakangaro katoa. Ko te whakamātautau kume, inā koa i ngā matotoru iti iho, he nui te whakawhirinaki ki te whakarite tauira. Ko ngā hua kaha kume kāore e whakaatu ana i ngā āhuatanga tūturu o te rauemi ka pāngia pea e te rahunga wawe.
Mena kāore ngā āhuatanga i te ōrite puta noa i te mea mahi, ko te tango i tētahi tauira whakamātautau kume, i tētahi tauira rānei mai i tētahi taha, kāore pea e whakaatu i te katoa o te kōrero. Ka roa pea te whakarite me te whakamātautau i ngā tauira. E hia ngā whakamātautau ka taea mō tētahi konganuku, ā, e hia ngā huarahi ka taea ai? Ko te aromatawai i te hanganga o te kōhao he inihua tāpiri mō ngā ohorere.
Anisotropic, isotropic. Ko te anisotropy e pā ana ki te ahunga o ngā āhuatanga ā-pūkaha. Haunga te kaha, ka taea te mārama ake ki te anisotropy mā te tirotiro i te hanganga o te witi.
Me rite te hanganga o te kōpaka, ā, kia rite te āhua, kia rite te āhua ki ngā taha katoa. He mea nui te isotropy i roto i ngā tukanga tuhi hōhonu, ina he mea nui te arotahi. Ina kumea te mea papatahi ki roto i te pokepokea ai, kāore te rauemi anisotropic e rere ōrite, ka puta he hapa e kiia nei ko te taringa. Ka puta te whakakai i te wāhi e hanga ana te taha o runga o te kapu i te āhua pōturi. Mā te tirotiro i te hanganga kōpaka ka kitea te wāhi o ngā kore ōritetanga i roto i te mea mahi, ā, ka āwhina i te tautuhi i te pūtake.
He mea nui te whakamahana tika hei whakatutuki i te isotropy, engari he mea nui anō hoki kia mārama ki te whānuitanga o te whakarerekētanga i mua i te whakamahana. I te mea ka rerekē te āhua kirihou o te rauemi, ka tīmata te rerekētanga o ngā kakano. I roto i te take o te hurihuri makariri, ka huri te matotoru ki te roa, ka roa ngā kakano i te ahunga hurihuri. I te mea ka rerekē te ōwehenga āhua o te kakano, ka rerekē anō hoki te isotropy me ngā āhuatanga miihini whānui. I roto i te take o ngā wahi mahi kua tino rerekē te āhua, ka mau tonu pea ētahi o ngā aronga ahakoa i muri i te whakamahana. Ka hua ake tēnei i te anisotropy. Mō ngā rauemi kua hohonu te kukume, i ētahi wā me whakawhāiti te nui o te whakarerekētanga i mua i te whakamahana whakamutunga kia kore ai e pakaru.
Kiri karaka. Ehara i te mea ko te kohi anake te hapa kukume hohonu e pā ana ki te mate. Ka puta te kiri karaka ina kohia ngā rauemi mata he nui rawa ngā matūriki. Ka rerekē te āhua o ia kakano, ā, nā te āhua o tōna tioata. Ko te rerekētanga o te rerekētanga i waenga i ngā kakano tata ka hua ake he āhua kakano rite ki te kiri karaka. Ko te kakano te hanganga kirikiri e kitea ana i runga i te mata o te pakitara kapu.
Pērā i ngā pika i runga i te mata pouaka whakaata, he hanganga angiangi, ka iti ake te kitea o te rerekētanga i waenga i ia anga, ka nui ake te taumira. Kāore pea e ranea te tautuhi i ngā āhuatanga miihini anake hei whakarite i te rahi angiangi o te anga hei ārai i te pānga kiri karaka. Ina iti iho i te 10 ngā wā o te whānui o te anga te rerekētanga o te rahi o te mea mahi, ka akiakihia e ngā āhuatanga o ia anga te whanonga hanga. Kāore e rite te rerekētanga ki runga i ngā anga maha, engari e whakaata ana i te rahi me te whakatakotoranga motuhake o ia anga. Ka kitea tēnei mai i te pānga kiri karaka i runga i ngā pakitara o ngā kapu kua tuhia.
Mō te rahi o te kōpura ASTM o te 8, ko te whānui toharite o te kōpura he 885 µin. Ko te tikanga o tēnei ka pāngia pea koe e tēnei pānga hanga moroiti mēnā ka heke te matotoru o te 0.00885 inihi, iti iho rānei.
Ahakoa ka raru pea te tuhi hōhonu i ngā kirikiri matotoru, i ētahi wā ka tūtohutia kia tāia. Ko te tā he tukanga whakarerekētanga e pēhia ai te mata o te pepa kia puta ai te āhua e hiahiatia ana, pērā i te hauwhā o ngā āhua o te mata o George Washington. He rerekē ki te tuhi waea, ko te tā he iti noa te rere o ngā rauemi papatipu, engari he nui te kaha e hiahiatia ana, ka whakarerekē noa pea i te mata o te pepa.
Nā reira, mā te whakaiti i te ahotea rere o te mata mā te whakamahi i tētahi hanganga kōpaka matotoru ka āwhina i te whakaiti i ngā kaha e hiahiatia ana mō te whakakī tika i te pokepokea ai. He pono rawa tēnei mō te tānga mate-kore, ka taea e ngā nekehanga o ngā kōpaka mata te rere noa, kaua e kohikohi i ngā rohe kōpaka.
Ko ngā ia e kōrerohia ana i konei he whakawhanuitanga kāore pea e pā ki ngā wāhanga motuhake. Heoi, i whakamāramahia e rātou ngā painga o te ine me te whakataurite i te rahi o te witi o ngā rauemi mata i te wā e hoahoa ana i ngā wāhanga hou hei karo i ngā hapa noa me te arotau i ngā tawhā whakahāngai.
Ka pai te mahi tahi a ngā kaihanga mīhini tā whakarewa tika me ngā mahi tā hohonu i runga i te whakarewa hei hanga i ā rātou wāhanga me ngā tohunga whakarewa i runga i ngā mīhini hurihanga tika whai tohu hangarau, ka taea e rātou te āwhina i a rātou ki te arotau i ngā rauemi tae noa ki te taumata witi. Ina whakauruhia ngā tohunga whakarewa me ngā tohunga hangarau o ngā taha e rua o te whanaungatanga ki roto i te rōpū kotahi, ka taea te whakaputa i ngā pānga whakarerekētanga me te whakaputa i ngā putanga pai ake.
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