Izinzuzo zingatholakala ngokuthola ukuqonda ngesendlalelo esisodwa sesakhiwo sokusanhlamvu esilawula ukuziphatha kwensimbi engagqwali. I-Getty Images
Ukukhethwa kwezinsimbi zensimbi engagqwali kanye ne-aluminium ngokuvamile kugxile emandleni, ukuguquguquka, ukunwebeka, kanye nokuqina. Lezi zakhiwo zibonisa indlela izakhi zensimbi ezisabela ngayo emithwalweni esetshenzisiwe. Ziyisibonakaliso esisebenzayo sokuphatha imingcele yezinto zokusetshenziswa; okungukuthi, ukuthi izogoba kangakanani ngaphambi kokuphuka. Izinto zokusetshenziswa kumele zikwazi ukumelana nenqubo yokubumba ngaphandle kokuphuka.
Ukuhlolwa kokuqina okubhubhisayo kuyindlela ethembekile nengabizi kakhulu yokunquma izakhiwo zemishini. Kodwa-ke, lezi zivivinyo azithembeki njalo uma ubukhulu bezinto zokusetshenziswa buqala ukukhawulela usayizi wesampula yokuhlola. Ukuhlolwa kokuqina kwemikhiqizo yensimbi eyisicaba kusasebenza, kodwa izinzuzo zingatholakala ngokubheka ngokujulile ungqimba olulodwa lwesakhiwo sezinhlamvu olulawula ukuziphatha kwaso kwemishini.
Izinsimbi zakhiwe uchungechunge lwamakristalu amancane abizwa ngokuthi okusanhlamvu. Asakazwa ngokungahleliwe kuyo yonke insimbi. Ama-athomu ezinto ezixubayo, njengensimbi, i-chromium, i-nickel, i-manganese, i-silicon, i-carbon, i-nitrogen, i-phosphorus kanye ne-sulfur ezinsimbini ezingagqwali ze-austenitic, ayingxenye yohlamvu olulodwa. Lawa ma-athomu akha isisombululo esiqinile sama-ion ensimbi, ahlanganiswa ne-crystal lattice ngama-electron awo ahlanganyelwe.
Ukwakheka kwamakhemikhali kwe-alloy kunquma ukuhlelwa kwama-athomu okukhethwa yi-thermodynamically kuma-grains, okwaziwa ngokuthi isakhiwo se-crystal. Izingxenye ezifanayo zensimbi equkethe isakhiwo se-crystal esiphindaphindayo zakha i-grains eyodwa noma ngaphezulu ebizwa ngokuthi i-phases. Izakhiwo ze-alloy ziwumsebenzi wesakhiwo se-crystal ku-alloy. Kunjalo nangosayizi kanye nokuhlelwa kwama-grains esigaba ngasinye.
Iningi labantu lijwayelene nezigaba zamanzi. Lapho amanzi acwebezelayo eqanda, aba yiqhwa eliqinile. Kodwa-ke, uma kukhulunywa ngezinsimbi, akukho sigaba esisodwa esiqinile. Imindeni ethile ye-alloy iqanjwe ngezigaba zayo. Phakathi kwezinsimbi ezingagqwali, ama-alloy e-austenitic 300 series aqukethe ngokuyinhloko i-austenite uma efakwa emanzini. Kodwa-ke, ama-alloy e-400 series aqukethe i-ferrite ku-430 stainless steel noma i-martensite ku-410 kanye ne-420 stainless steel alloys.
Kunjalo nangamakhemikhali e-titanium. Igama leqembu ngalinye le-alloy libonisa isigaba sawo esiyinhloko ekushiseni kwegumbi - i-alpha, i-beta noma ingxube yakho kokubili. Kukhona amakhemikhali e-alpha, i-near-alpha, i-alpha-beta, i-beta kanye ne-near-beta.
Uma insimbi ewuketshezi iqina, izinhlayiya eziqinile zesigaba esikhethwa yi-thermodynamically zizofika lapho ingcindezi, izinga lokushisa kanye nokwakheka kwamakhemikhali kuvumela khona. Lokhu kuvame ukwenzeka ezindaweni zokuhlangana, njengezikristalu zeqhwa ebusweni bechibi elifudumele ngosuku olubandayo. Lapho okusanhlamvu kwakheka, isakhiwo sekristalu sikhula ngakolunye uhlangothi kuze kube yilapho kutholakala okunye okusanhlamvu. Imingcele yokusanhlamvu yakha ezimpambanweni zama-lattice angalingani ngenxa yokuma okuhlukile kwezakhiwo zekristalu. Cabanga ngokubeka inqwaba yama-cubes kaRubik osayizi abahlukene ebhokisini. I-cube ngayinye inohlelo lwegridi yesikwele, kodwa zonke zizohlelwa ngezindlela ezahlukene ezingahleliwe. Umsebenzi wensimbi oqiniswe ngokuphelele uqukethe uchungechunge lwezinhlamvu ezibonakala ziqondiswe ngokungahleliwe.
Noma nini lapho kwakheka uhlamvu, kungenzeka kube nokukhubazeka komugqa. Lawa maphutha ayizingxenye ezingekho zesakhiwo sekristalu esibizwa ngokuthi ama-dislocations. Lawa ma-dislocation kanye nokunyakaza kwawo okulandelayo kulo lonke uhlamvu kanye naphesheya kwemingcele yohlamvu kubalulekile ekuguquguqukeni kwensimbi.
Ingxenye evundlile yesiqeshana somsebenzi iyafakwa, igaywe, ipholishwe futhi iqoshwe ukuze kubonwe isakhiwo sezinhlayiya. Uma zifana futhi zilingana, izakhiwo ezincane ezibonwa ku-microscope ebonakalayo zibukeka njengephazili ye-jigsaw. Eqinisweni, izinhlamvu zinezinhlangothi ezintathu, futhi ingxenye evundlile yesinhlayiya ngasinye izohluka kuye ngokuthi isigaba esivundlile sesiqeshana somsebenzi simi kanjani.
Uma isakhiwo sekristalu sigcwele wonke ama-athomu aso, akukho ndawo yokuhamba ngaphandle kokwelulwa kwezibopho ze-athomu.
Uma ususa ingxenye yomugqa wama-athomu, udala ithuba lokuthi omunye umugqa wama-athomu ungene kuleso simo, ushukumise ngempumelelo ukuhlukana. Uma amandla esetshenziswa endaweni yokusebenza, ukunyakaza okuhlanganisiwe kokuhlukana esakhiweni esincane kwenza sikwazi ukugoba, ukwelula noma ukucindezela ngaphandle kokuphuka noma ukuphuka.
Uma amandla esebenza ku-alloy yensimbi, uhlelo lukhulisa amandla. Uma kunezelwa amandla anele okubangela ukuguqulwa kwepulasitiki, i-lattice iyaguquguquka futhi kwakheka ukuguquguquka okusha. Kubonakala kunengqondo ukuthi lokhu kufanele kwandise ukuguquguquka, njengoba kukhulula isikhala esiningi futhi ngaleyo ndlela kudala amathuba okunyakaza okwengeziwe kokuguquguquka. Kodwa-ke, lapho ukuguquguquka kungqubuzana, kungalungisana.
Njengoba inani kanye nokuhlushwa kokuhlukana kwanda, ukuhlukana okuningi kuyahlanganiswa, kunciphisa ukunwebeka. Ekugcineni kuvela ukuhlukana okuningi kangangokuthi ukwakheka kokubanda akusakwazi ukwenzeka. Njengoba ukuhlukana okukhona kokunamathela kungasakwazi ukunyakaza, izibopho ze-athomu ku-lattice ziyanwebeka kuze kube yilapho ziphuka noma ziphuka. Yingakho ama-alloy ensimbi esebenza kanzima, futhi kungani kunomkhawulo enanini lokuguqulwa kwepulasitiki insimbi engamelana nakho ngaphambi kokuphuka.
Okusanhlamvu nakho kudlala indima ebalulekile ekufakweni kwe-annealing. Ukufakwa kwe-annealing yezinto eziqiniswe kahle kusetha kabusha isakhiwo esincane futhi ngaleyo ndlela kubuyisela ukuguquguquka. Ngesikhathi senqubo yokufakwa kwe-annealing, okusanhlamvu kuguqulwa ngezinyathelo ezintathu:
Cabanga ngomuntu ohamba emotweni yesitimela egcwele abantu. Izixuku zingacindezelwa kuphela ngokushiya izikhala phakathi kwemigqa, njengokuhlukana ethafeni. Njengoba ziqhubeka, abantu abangemuva kwazo bagcwalisa isikhala abasishiyile, kuyilapho bedala isikhala esisha ngaphambili. Uma sebefike komunye umkhawulo wenqola, ukuhlelwa kwabagibeli kuyashintsha. Uma abantu abaningi kakhulu bezama ukudlula ngesikhathi esisodwa, abagibeli abazama ukwenza indawo yokuhamba kwabo bazoshayisana futhi bashaye izindonga zezimoto zesitimela, babambe wonke umuntu endaweni yakhe. Lapho kuvela ukuhlukana okuningi, kuba nzima kakhulu ngabo ukuhamba ngesikhathi esisodwa.
Kubalulekile ukuqonda izinga eliphansi lokuguquguquka elidingekayo ukuze kuqaliswe ukuvuselelwa kabusha. Kodwa-ke, uma insimbi ingenawo amandla okuguquguquka anele ngaphambi kokuba ifudumale, ukuvuselelwa kabusha ngeke kwenzeke futhi izinhlamvu zizoqhubeka nokukhula ngaphezu kobukhulu bazo bokuqala.
Izakhiwo zemishini zingalungiswa ngokulawula ukukhula kokusanhlamvu. Umngcele wokusanhlamvu empeleni uwudonga lokuhlukana. Zivimbela ukunyakaza.
Uma ukukhula kokusanhlamvu kunqunyelwe, kuzokhiqizwa inani elikhulu lokusanhlamvu okuncane. Lokhu okusanhlamvu okuncane kubhekwa njengokuncane ngokwesakhiwo sokusanhlamvu. Imingcele eminingi yokusanhlamvu isho ukunyakaza okuncane kokusuka kanye namandla aphezulu.
Uma ukukhula kokusanhlamvu kungavinjelwe, isakhiwo sokusanhlamvu siba mancane, okusanhlamvu kuba kukhulu, imingcele iba mincane, futhi amandla aphansi.
Usayizi wezinhlamvu uvame ukubizwa ngokuthi inombolo engenayunithi, endaweni ethile phakathi kuka-5 no-15. Lesi yisilinganiso esihlobene futhi sihlobene nobubanzi bezinhlamvu obujwayelekile. Uma inombolo iphakeme, kulapho i-granularity iba ncane khona.
I-ASTM E112 ichaza izindlela zokulinganisa nokuhlola usayizi wezinhlamvu. Kuhilela ukubala inani lezinhlamvu endaweni ethile. Lokhu kuvame ukwenziwa ngokusika ingxenye evundlile yezinto zokusetshenziswa, ukuyigaya nokuyipholisha, bese uyiqopha nge-asidi ukuze kuvezwe izinhlayiya. Ukubala kwenziwa ngaphansi kwe-microscope, futhi ukukhuliswa kuvumela ukusampula okwanele kwezinhlamvu. Ukunikeza izinombolo zosayizi wezinhlamvu ze-ASTM kubonisa izinga elifanele lokufana ngesimo nobubanzi bezinhlamvu. Kungaba yinzuzo ngisho nokunciphisa ukuhlukahluka kosayizi wezinhlamvu kuya kumaphuzu amabili noma amathathu ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza okuhambisanayo kulo lonke umsebenzi.
Uma umsebenzi uqina, amandla kanye nokuguquguquka kunobudlelwano obuphambene. Ubudlelwano phakathi kobukhulu bezinhlamvu ze-ASTM namandla buvame ukuba obuhle futhi buqine, ngokuvamile ukunwebeka kuhlobene ngokuphambene nobukhulu bezinhlamvu ze-ASTM. Kodwa-ke, ukukhula ngokweqile kwezinhlamvu kungabangela ukuthi izinto "ezithambile" zingasasebenzi ziqine ngempumelelo.
Usayizi wezinhlamvu uvame ukubizwa ngokuthi inombolo engenayunithi, endaweni ethile phakathi kuka-5 no-15. Lesi yisilinganiso esihlobene futhi sihlobene nobubanzi bezinhlamvu obujwayelekile. Uma inani losayizi wezinhlamvu ze-ASTM liphakeme, kulapho izinhlamvu eziningi endaweni ngayinye.
Usayizi wezinhlamvu zezinto ezifakwe emanzini ziyahlukahluka ngesikhathi, izinga lokushisa kanye nesivinini sokupholisa. Ukucwiliswa kuvame ukwenziwa phakathi kwezinga lokushisa lokuphinda kusetshenziswe kanye nephuzu lokuncibilika kwe-alloy. Ububanzi bokushisa obunconywayo bokucwiliswa kwe-alloy yensimbi engagqwali ye-austenitic 301 buphakathi kwama-degrees Fahrenheit angu-1,900 no-2,050. Kuzoqala ukuncibilika cishe kuma-degrees Fahrenheit angu-2,550. Ngokuphambene nalokho, i-titanium yebanga lokuqala emsulwa ethengiswayo kufanele icwiliswe kuma-degrees Fahrenheit angu-1,292 futhi incibilike cishe kuma-degrees Fahrenheit angu-3,000.
Ngesikhathi sokufakelwa, izinqubo zokubuyisa kanye nokufakelwa kabusha ziyancintisana kuze kube yilapho okusanhlamvu okufakwe kabusha kudla konke okusanhlamvu okuguqukile. Izinga lokufakelwa kabusha liyahlukahluka ngokushisa. Uma ukufakelwa kabusha sekuqediwe, ukukhula kokusanhlamvu kuthatha indawo. I-workpiece yensimbi engagqwali engu-301 efakwe ku-1,900°F ihora elilodwa izoba nesakhiwo sokusanhlamvu esincanyana kune-workpiece efanayo efakwe ku-2,000°F ngesikhathi esifanayo.
Uma izinto zingabanjwanga ebangeni elifanele lokunamathisela isikhathi eside ngokwanele, isakhiwo esiphumelayo singaba inhlanganisela yezinhlayiya ezindala nezintsha. Uma kufiswa izakhiwo ezifanayo kuyo yonke insimbi, inqubo yokunamathisela kufanele ihlose ukufeza isakhiwo sezinhlayiya ezilinganayo. Ukufana kusho ukuthi zonke izinhlamvu zilingana ngobukhulu, kanti ukufana kusho ukuthi zifana ngesimo.
Ukuze uthole isakhiwo esincane esifanayo nesilinganayo, i-workpiece ngayinye kufanele ivezwe esilinganisweni esifanayo sokushisa isikhathi esifanayo futhi kufanele iphole ngesivinini esifanayo. Lokhu akulula ngaso sonke isikhathi noma kungenzeka nge-batch annealing, ngakho-ke kubalulekile ukulinda okungenani kuze kube yilapho yonke i-workpiece igcwele ekushiseni okufanele ngaphambi kokubala isikhathi sokucwilisa. Izikhathi zokucwilisa ezinde kanye namazinga okushisa aphezulu kuzoholela esakhiweni sezinhlamvu eziqinile/izinto ezithambile kanye nokunye.
Uma usayizi wezinhlamvu namandla kuhlobene, futhi amandla ayaziwa, kungani kubalwa izinhlamvu, akunjalo? Zonke izivivinyo ezibhubhisayo zinokuhlukahluka. Ukuhlolwa kokuqina, ikakhulukazi ekujikeni okuphansi, kuncike kakhulu ekulungiseleleni isampula. Imiphumela yamandla okuqina engameleli izakhiwo zangempela zezinto ingase ibhekane nokwehluleka kwangaphambi kwesikhathi.
Uma izakhiwo zingalingani kulo lonke umsebenzi, ukuthatha isampula yokuhlola ethambile noma isampula kusuka kolunye uhlangothi kungase kungayilandisi yonke indaba. Ukulungiselela nokuhlola isampula nakho kungadla isikhathi. Zingaki izivivinyo ezingenzeka ngensimbi ethile, futhi zingaki izindlela ezingenzeka ngazo? Ukuhlola isakhiwo sezinhlamvu kuyisivikelo esengeziwe ngokumelene nezimanga.
I-Anisotropic, i-isotropic. I-Anisotropy ibhekisela ekuqondeni kwezakhiwo zemishini. Ngaphezu kwamandla, i-anisotropy ingaqondwa kangcono ngokuhlola isakhiwo sezinhlamvu.
Isakhiwo sezinhlamvu esifanayo nesilinganayo kufanele sibe yi-isotropic, okusho ukuthi sinezakhiwo ezifanayo kuzo zonke izinhlangothi. I-Isotropy ibaluleke kakhulu ezinqubweni zokudweba ezijulile lapho ukugxila kubalulekile khona. Lapho isikhala sidonswa esikhumbeni, izinto ze-anisotropic ngeke zigeleze ngokufanayo, okungaholela esicini esibizwa ngokuthi i-earing. I-earring yenzeka lapho ingxenye engenhla yendebe yakha i-silhouette egobile. Ukuhlola isakhiwo sezinhlamvu kungaveza indawo yokungafani endaweni yokusebenza futhi kusize ekuxilongeni imbangela eyinhloko.
Ukugoqa okufanele kubalulekile ekufinyeleleni i-isotropy, kodwa kubalulekile futhi ukuqonda izinga lokuguquka ngaphambi kokugoqa. Njengoba izinto ziguquguquka ngepulasitiki, izinhlamvu ziqala ukuguquguquka. Endabeni yokugoqa okubandayo, okuguqula ukujiya kube ubude, izinhlamvu zizokhula ziye ohlangothini lokugoqa. Njengoba isilinganiso sesici sezinhlamvu sishintsha, kanjalo ne-isotropy kanye nezakhiwo zemishini zizonke. Endabeni yezinto zokusebenza eziguquguquke kakhulu, ukuqondiswa okuthile kungagcinwa ngisho nangemva kokugoqa. Lokhu kuphumela ku-anisotropy. Ezintweni ezidonswe ngokujulile, ngezinye izikhathi kuyadingeka ukunciphisa inani lokuguquguquka ngaphambi kokugoqa kokugcina ukuze kugwenywe ukuguguleka.
Ikhasi le-orenji. Ukuqoqwa akusona ukuphela kwesici sokudonsa okujulile esihlotshaniswa nodayi. Ikhasi le-orenji lenzeka lapho kudonswa izinto zokusetshenziswa ezinezinhlayiya eziqinile kakhulu. Ikhasi ngalinye liyashintshashintsha ngokuzimela futhi ngenxa yokuma kwalo kwekristalu. Umehluko ekuguqukeni phakathi kwezinhlamvu eziseduze uholela ekubukekeni okufana nekhasi le-orenji. Ukuthungwa kuyisakhiwo se-granular esivezwe ebusweni bodonga lwendebe.
Njengamaphikseli esikrinini se-TV, anesakhiwo esihle kakhulu, umehluko phakathi kwezinhlamvu ngazinye ngeke ubonakale kakhulu, okwandisa ngempumelelo isinqumo. Ukucacisa izakhiwo zemishini kukodwa kungase kunganeli ukuqinisekisa usayizi wezinhlamvu ezincane ngokwanele ukuvimbela umphumela we-orange peel. Uma ushintsho kusayizi we-workpiece lungaphansi kobubanzi bezinhlamvu eziphindwe kayishumi, izakhiwo zezinhlamvu ngazinye zizoqhuba ukuziphatha kokwakheka. Aziguquguquki ngokulinganayo phezu kwezinhlamvu eziningi, kodwa zibonisa usayizi kanye nokuma kwezinhlamvu ngazinye. Lokhu kungabonakala emphumeleni we-orange peel ezindongeni zezinkomishi ezidonsiwe.
Ngosayizi we-ASTM grain ongu-8, ububanzi be-grain obumaphakathi bungu-885 µin. Lokhu kusho ukuthi noma yikuphi ukwehla kobukhulu obungu-0.00885 amasentimitha noma ngaphansi kungathinteka yilo mphumela we-microforming.
Nakuba izinhlamvu eziqinile zingabangela izinkinga zokudweba ezijulile, ngezinye izikhathi ziyanconywa ukuze zinyatheliswe. Ukunyathela kuyinqubo yokuguquguquka lapho i-blank icindezelwa khona ukuze kunikezwe indawo efiselekayo, njengengxenye yesine yesimo sobuso sikaGeorge Washington. Ngokungafani nokudweba ngocingo, ukunyathela ngokuvamile akubandakanyi ukugeleza okukhulu kwezinto eziningi, kodwa kudinga amandla amaningi, okungase kuphazamise ubuso be-blank.
Ngenxa yalesi sizathu, ukunciphisa ukucindezeleka kokugeleza kobuso ngokusebenzisa isakhiwo sokusanhlamvu esiqinile kungasiza ekunciphiseni amandla adingekayo ukuze kugcwaliswe isikhunta ngendlela efanele. Lokhu kuyiqiniso ikakhulukazi endabeni yokunyathelisa okufayo, lapho ukuhlukana kokusanhlamvu kobuso kungageleza ngokukhululeka kunokuba kuqongelelane emingceleni yokusanhlamvu.
Izitayela okuxoxwe ngazo lapha ziyizinto ezijwayelekile ezingase zingasebenzi ezigabeni ezithile. Kodwa-ke, ziqokomise izinzuzo zokulinganisa nokulinganisa usayizi wezinhlayiya zezinto zokusetshenziswa lapho kuklanywa izingxenye ezintsha ukuze kugwenywe izingibe ezivamile futhi kuthuthukiswe amapharamitha okubumba.
Abakhiqizi bemishini yokunyathela insimbi ngokunemba kanye nemisebenzi yokudweba ngokujulile ensimbini ukuze bakhe izingxenye zabo bazosebenzisana kahle nochwepheshe bensimbi kuma-re-roller afanelekile ngobuchwepheshe angabasiza ukuthi balungise izinto kuze kufike ezingeni lokusanhlamvu. Lapho ochwepheshe bensimbi kanye nobunjiniyela kuzo zombili izinhlangothi zobudlelwano behlanganiswa eqenjini elilodwa, kungaba nomthelela oguqulayo futhi kukhiqize imiphumela emihle kakhulu.
I-STAMPING Journal iyona kuphela ijenali yemboni ezinikele ekuhlinzekeni izidingo zemakethe yokunyathela ngensimbi. Kusukela ngo-1989, le ncwadi ibilokhu ihlanganisa ubuchwepheshe obusezingeni eliphezulu, izitayela zemboni, imikhuba emihle kanye nezindaba ukusiza ochwepheshe bokunyathela ngensimbi baqhube ibhizinisi labo ngempumelelo enkulu.
Manje ngokufinyelela okugcwele kuhlelo lwedijithali lwe-FABRICATOR, ukufinyelela okulula ezinsizeni ezibalulekile zemboni.
Uhlelo lwedijithali lwe-The Tube & Pipe Journal seluyatholakala ngokugcwele manje, lunikeza ukufinyelela okulula ezinsizeni ezibalulekile zemboni.
Jabulela ukufinyelela okugcwele kuhlelo lwedijithali lwe-STAMPING Journal, oluhlinzeka ngentuthuko yakamuva kwezobuchwepheshe, imikhuba emihle kanye nezindaba zemboni zemakethe yokunyathela insimbi.
Manje ngokufinyelela okugcwele kuhlelo lwedijithali lwe-The Fabricator ngesi-Español, ukufinyelela okulula ezinsizeni ezibalulekile zemboni.